Forestry Archives - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development https://silvica.site/category/forestry/ Greening our world through content Thu, 18 Nov 2021 12:57:41 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.7 https://i0.wp.com/silvica.site/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/cropped-silvica_image.jpg?fit=32%2C32 Forestry Archives - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development https://silvica.site/category/forestry/ 32 32 162136420 Forest and tree products http://silvica.site/forest-and-tree-products/ Sun, 21 Mar 2021 20:32:47 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1248 Forest and tree products are important to the local and global economies

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By David Okul

Forest and tree products include materials and services derived from woody plants. There are very many uses of trees and forest products. In this blog post, we have divided the forest and tree products into:

  • Conservation (soil, air, and water)
  • Timber, poles, and posts (traditional forest product)
  • Biomass fuel
  • Pulp and paper
  • Non-wood forest products
  • Agroforestry

Soil, air, and Water Conservation

Personally, I think that the most important role of forests and trees in the world is the conservation of soil, water, and air.

Forests conserve soil and water quite effectively. They not only obstruct (reduce) the flow of water, but the falling leaves provide organic matter which increases the water holding capacity of the soil. If tree planting is done in the planned manner in open areas, it will serve as a windbreak and if done along the banks of streams and rivers, it will regulate their flow.  Additionally,

  • Nitrogen-fixing soils also assist in adding nutrients to the soil.
  • Forests and trees improve water quality by reducing sediments in the water. Sediments are small particles in the soil.
  • Trees also reduce the flow of water in hills and mountains, therefore, reducing cases of floods.
  • Forests also attract rain. This is a controversial statement, but areas with reduced forest cover have been seen to have lower rainfall. Most rivers have sources from forests e.g. the source of River Mara is Mau forest, Tana River comes from Mount Kenya’s forested areas, the Nile from Congo forest, etc, which can be proof enough that to have water we need forests!!!

Trees and water quantity and quality

The role of trees in defining water quality and quality can be summarized in two ways:

  • Increasing infiltration: This is because the leaves reduce the force of rainwater and can be absorbed easily
  • Filtration: Trees are also natural filters of water

Air conservation

Trees help preserve the balance of gases in the atmosphere. A tree’s leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the air. They also produce oxygen and release it into the atmosphere. These two processes are necessary for people to live. People could not survive if the air had too much carbon dioxide or too little oxygen!!!! Remember carbon dioxide is a major GHG therefore trees/ forests will help in reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Tree species for conservation

Indigenous trees are better for conservation because:

  • Indigenous trees are better adapted to the prevailing conditions.
  • Indigenous trees have more uses known to the local people.
  • Lower chances of bad effects of indigenous trees to the environment

Indigenous species are thus the best trees to use for conservation. While planting trees for conservation in Africa, the spacing can be very close e.g. 1 meter by 1 meter even 0.5 by 0.5!

Virtually any tree can be used for conservation. However, invasive species are discouraged in many circumstances.

Timber is a common forest product
Timber is one of the most common forest and tree products (Image by antmoreton from Pixabay)

Timber, Poles, and Posts

Tree species for timber are usually fast-growing. Regardless, the timber industry has been a major cause for the destruction of natural forests. Sustainable commercial production of timber trees usually occurs in plantations/ Among the common species used in East Africa for production of timber posts and posts include:

  • Cyperus
  • Pine
  • Eucalyptus

Management of trees for timber poles and posts

Spacing: There is wider spacing for these types of trees as they need a bigger diameter. The diameter in forestry is measured at breast height and it is called diameter at breast height (dbh). The dbh is usually 1.3 meters.

Thinning: This refers to felling closely spaced trees to enhance the diameter growth of the remaining trees.

The trees from thinning can be used for various purposes such as fuelwood and posts.

Pruning

Pruning refers to removing branches of trees to achieve knot-free timber

Trees as Fuelwood

Trees and other woody plants have been used for fuel for millennia. When done sustainably, fuelwood is a renewable and environmentally friendly source of energy.

Qualities for good fuelwood

  • Calorific value: Refers to the energy content that the wood has. Wood that burns for a long time has higher calorific values e.g. Tarchonanthus species has a higher calorific value than cypress.
  • Smokeless: Good fuelwood burn with minimal smoke.
  • Coppices easily: Coppicing refers to the ability of the tree to sprout from the cut shoot with relative ease.
  • Multi branched: Multi branched trees have the advantage of higher quantities of matter produced.

Species for fuelwood

Eucalyptus species trees are grown and used by tree processing industries in East Africa. In most sub-Saharan Africa, Acacia and Commiphora species are used for fuelwood. Often people in rural Africa cut branches or collect fallen parts for firewood. This is less destructive to the wood resources. In contrast, charcoal production is often unsustainable and causes significant losses.

Management of trees for biofuel

Spacing: Trees for fuelwood are closely spaced

Harvesting: Harvesting will depend on the species; trees that coppice or pollard well can be harvested entirely and trees with multiple branches can involve branch-harvesting.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. It is safe, biodegradable, and produces fewer air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel. The disadvantage is that biodiesel is expensive to produce and it competes with the land that could be used for food production.

Tree species used for biodiesel that could be used for biodiesel production include Jatropha carcus and

Croton megalorcarpus

The nuts of the jatropha plants are crushed to release oil that can be used in a standard diesel car.

Other plants that can produce diesel include soya beans and maize. Unless technology for extraction improves, I believe that biodiesel production is harmful to the environment.

Pulp and Paper

Pulp and paper also are tree products. Paper is used for writing, printing, and packaging and is a big business.

Process of making pulp and paper

  • The bark is removed from the tree. This is called pulping
  • The wood is then chopped into small pieces by a chipper.
  • The wood is then cooked with chemicals
  • Water is then drained from the cooked wood to form paper.
  • Softwoods are used to make paper.

Tree species for pulp and paper

In East Africa, the common species for making paper are Pine (Pinus spp) and Cypress (Cupressus species). The common trees in the world for making paper are softwoods such as firs and pines.

Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP)

NWFP are products from trees and forests other than wood products. Often, NWFP can be extracted from trees without felling them. Examples of non-wood forest products include:

  • Food like leaves eaten as human food (moringa), edible fruits from trees
  • Food additives such as gums used in food production
  • Fodder for livestock
  • Fiber
  • Fragrance
  • Oils
  • Habitats for species like birds
  • Bees and bee products

Agroforestry

This is a system of deliberate growing of woody perennials on the same unit of land as crops and/or animals, either in some form of spatial mixture or sequence.

Benefits of agroforestry

  • Food: Some trees provide food in fruits and vegetables in leaves such as Moringa
  • Enhanced crop production increase food security.
  • Energy: The trees can be used as fuelwood by the farmers
  • Shelter: For resting, some crops do better in the partial shade provided by the trees.
  • Medicine: Some trees have medicinal value.
  • Raw materials: Raw materials for industries but this is not a major product from agroforestry systems in Kenya.

Limitations of agroforestry

  • Poor choice of tree species might lead to more adverse effects rather than positive ones e.g. competition with crops and shading.
  • Space limits the ability of people to undertake agroforestry.
  • Inadequacy of appropriate knowledge at the grass-root level.

The blog post highlights a summary of different goods and services offered by woody plants. Generally, woody plants have multiple-uses. Before a tree planting exercise, it is vital to have an understanding of the intended use of the resulting trees. Such an understanding would assist a silviculturist to make decisions on the correct management practices and species selection. Additionally, sustainable use of forest and tree products is vital if we are to conserve the forest resources of the world. 

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

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]]> 1248 Bush gardening and Landscaping in East Africa http://silvica.site/bush-gardening-and-landscaping-in-east-africa/ Sun, 28 Feb 2021 19:30:55 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1241 Bush gardening and landscaping help improve the appearance of a facility.

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By David Okul

little alteration of the normal natural environment. In contrast, general landscaping can involve introduction of various species and rocks. Bushgardens are common in safari camps across east Africa.  This article can give you ideas on whow to go about bushgardening/landscaping in East Africa

IMPORTANCE OF LANDSCAPING

Corporate image and Aesthetic value

A good garden in any organization/company will increase the appreciation by the customer i.e. it will make a good first impression.

Pests and weeds

Gardening also assists in reducing the occurrences of pests and weeds.

Opuntia (Prickly pear) species is among the most notorious invasive plant species in the world

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bush garden

A garden in a natural setting.

Lawn

Area covered by grass and is continuously mowed to keep the grass short and attractive.

Hedge

Fence made by shrubs or low trees.

Pot plants

Plants for ornamental or other purposes grown in containers such as pots, baskets etc.

landscaping

Any activity that modifies an area including living elements, natural elements and human elements such as fences.

GARDEN PLANTS

Plants are very important in gardening and landscaping. When selecting plants for gardening make sure to include some plants with these characteristics in your framework

  • Very hardy
  • Almost maintenance free
  • Architectural

These plants should be able to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Garden plants can be herbs, grass, succulents, shrubs or even trees

 

It is good for a gardener to know the name of his/ her garden plants but it is more important to know the growth form and requirements of plants.

 

Examples of common garden plants include:

  • Agave species
  • Aloe species-some indigenous and some exotic
  • Kalonchoe species-mostly indigenous
  • Bougainvillea species-exotic
  • Kei apple (Dovyalis caffra)-exotic

Gardens in protected areas only grow indigenous species of plants.

While trees are generally useful in gardening, there are trees with bad habits such as:

Trees that prevent other things from growing under their canopy e.g. Jacaranda and Cupressus

Some drop large quantities of leaves all year round e.g. Grevillea, Acrocarpus and Croton megalocarpus

Some trees have extensive roots and may drain septic tanks and local drains e.g. Ficus species

Some trees dry the soil e.g. Eucalyptus species.

 

Garden plants should be pruned often to make them have an attractive shape. The best shape for shrubs is when the base is the broadest part (mushroom shape). When pruning a tree/shrub, it is best to start from the bottom therefore.

GARDEN TYPES

Types of soil

The texture of the soil is used to determine soil type. The texture of soil depends on the size of soil particles.

Sand

Large soil particles

Loam

Best soil for gardening as it has intermediate size of particles

Clay

Has small particles and very sticky

 

All in all good soil needs; good air circulation, good drainage, humus, water, nutrients and manure

Soil is very important for any gardener. All soil problems, regardless of the type of soil or situation, can be resolved over a period of time by adding sufficient quantities of humus. Humus refers to any organic matter that has rotten down. It gives texture and adds fertility to the soil.

Sweeping lawns is sometimes not the best idea because it removes humus from the soil.

Improving soil

·         Compost

·         Mulch

 

·         Green manure 

SOILS

Rock garden

Water garden

Pot plans

Hedges

Lawns

Green roofs

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

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]]> 1241 Endangered Species in Kenya: Plants and Animals http://silvica.site/endangered-species-in-kenya-plants-and-animals/ Sat, 30 Jan 2021 05:05:00 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1225 Conservation initiatives reduces the risks faced by endangered species

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By David Okul

Endangered species in Kenya are part of the biodiversity that provides a variety of environmental goods and services. The biodiversity assets in Kenya include 7,000 plants, 25,000 invertebrates, 1100 birds, 315 mammals, 191 reptiles, 180 freshwater fish, 692 fish, 88 amphibians, and about 2 000 species of fungi and bacteria (NEMA, 2009). In this article, we list some of the endangered species in Kenya. Please note that the listing is based primarily on a State of the Environment report by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya’s state agency responsible for the management of the environment. Additionally, some of the listing (especially mammals) follows the sixth schedule in the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 2013. Although we focus on Kenya, most of the species listed are also endangered in other East Africa countries.  

Endangered Plant Species in Kenya

Various plant species are endangered because of overexploitation, deforestation, and degradation. In East Africa, clearing native vegetation types for agriculture and settlement is still a threat to biodiversity. Apart from commercial value, some plants are overexploited because of their medicinal values. The threatened plant species in Kenya include the

  1. Bauhinia mombassae: The species is under intense pressure from elephants at the Kenyan coast.
  2. Brucea macrocarpa: A shrub found in central Kenya in swampy areas around Thika and Kamiti. Expansion of land for agriculture is a major threat
  3. Voi cycad (Encephalartos kisambo); Species also threatened by agriculture and charcoal production. The good news is that the species is relatively easy to grow and is prized in landscaping.
  4. East African sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata); has been overexploited because of its oil that is valuable in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. As such, it is illegal to cut, uproot or export sandalwood
  5. Red stinkwood (Prunus africana): Its timber is prized because it is heavy, straight-grained, and strong. However, the tree is overexploited because of its medicinal properties as its bark and leaves are harvested. The species is protected under Appendix II of CITES.
  6. Meru oak (Vitex keniensis): The IUCN listed endangered species is valued for its timber. For a high-value indigenous tree, the species is relatively fast-growing.
  7. Camphor (Ocotea kenyensis): The vulnerable species are found in various places in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is threatened by the loss of habitats.
  8. Parasol tree (Polyscias kikuyuensis): The tree is endemic to Kenya, but is threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation for timber and medicine.
  9. Rat aloe (Aloe ballyi): The tall poisonous succulent is among the few poisonous aloes. It is native to Kenya (Taita Hills) and Tanzania. The rare succulent is threatened by land clearance and is called rat aloe because of the smell of its leaves.
  10. Tana river poplar (Populus ilicifolia). Only species of genus Populus that is native to Africa, and endemic to a small section of Kenya and Tanzania. Was used by Pokomos for canoe making. Some of the tree is found in Nyando River (Near Ahero), but it is probably planted there. Relatively fast-growing.
  11. Combretum tenuipetiolatum: IUCN lists it as ‘critically endangered, and can only be found in Rabai forest
  12. Euphorbia tanaensis: Another critically endangered species found in Witu Forest, where you can find about 20 mature trees.
  13. African Olive (Olea europea ssp africana) is endangered in the East African region because of its beautiful wood and medicinal properties.
  14. Knobwood (Zanthoxylum chalybeum) is critically endangered in Kenya and threatened in the East African region, also because of its medicinal value.

Despite this list, the Kenya Wildlife and Conservation Act only consider sandalwood and Voi cycad as endangered. Some of the other species are listed as vulnerable in the Act.

elephants are one of the endangered species in Kenya
Trade in items like ivory negatively affects wildlife populations

Endangered animal Species in Kenya

Threatened Mammal Species in Kenya

Animals include mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and amphibians, and in each group, there are endangered species in Kenya. According to the Kenya Wildlife Act, the following mammals are listed as critically endangered

  1. Aders’ duiker (Cephalophus adersi)
  2. Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): Between 1960 and 1965, the population of black rhinos in Africa dropped by a staggering 98% to below 2,500 individuals. Because of concerted conservation efforts, their numbers have increased to around 5,500 individuals in recent years.
  3. Hirola (Beatragus hunter)
  4. Eastern red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus)
  5. Tana crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus)
  6. Roan antelope (Hippotragus equines)
  7. Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger)

Species listed as endangered include:

  1. African elephant (Loxodonta Africana): But populations are increasing because of concerted conservation efforts
  2. African lion (Panthera leo): In the last 2 years, population has reduced by 43%. It is estimated that around 20,000 lions roam the wildlands of Africa
  3. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus): Need huge spaces to survive as they find it hard to compete with other predators
  4. Striped hyaena (Hyaena Hyaena)
  5. Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii)
  6. Leopard (Panthera pardus)
  7. White rhino (Ceratotherium simunz simum)
  8. Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi)
  9. African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
  10. Giant thicket rat (Grammomys gigas)
  11. Barbour’s vlei rat (Otomys barbourin)
  12. Mount elgon vlei rat (Otomys jacksoni)
  13. Golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus)
  14. Eastern bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci)
  15. Lelwel hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
  16. Rothschild’s giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi)
  17. Coalfish whale (Balaenoptera borealis)
  18. Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)

Some of the animals like lions, leopards, and elephants are listed as ‘vulnerable’ in the IUCN list but as endangered in the Kenya Wildlife Conservation and Management Act because of their immense value in conservation and tourism in the country. Furthermore, the act lists some vulnerable species to include the common hyena, greater kudu, lesser kudu, hippopotamus, and springhare among others. Although not mentioned in the act, there is a serious concern in the conservation world in East Africa over the population of species such as giraffes and pangolins.

Amphibians and reptiles are also diminishing across East Africa

Some endangered species in Kenya of amphibians and reptiles include:

  1. Du toit’s torrent frog (Petropedetes dutoiti)
  2. Shimba hills banana frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus)
  3. Shimba hills reed frog (Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus)
  4. Forest frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus)
  5. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
  6. Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas)
  7. Olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
  8. Rock python (Python sebae): They are listed in CITES Appendix II, meaning that they are not threatened with extinction, but may become so soon, unless trade is strictly controlled.

Fish Threatened with Extinction in Kenya

Fish are a major source of protein worldwide. However, they are threatened with extinction because of overfishing, eutrophication, and the introduction of invasive species like Nile Perch. Some of the fish listed by KWS as endangered in Kenya include:

  1. Singidia tilapia (Oreochromis esculentus):
  2. Lake Chala tilapia (Oreochromis hunteri):
  3. Jipe tilapia (Oreochromis jipe):
  4. Victoria tilapia (Oreochromis variabilis):
  5. Rainbow sheller (Ptyochromis sp.):
  6. Lake Victoria deepwater catfish (Xenoclarias eupogon):
  7. Montane dancing-jewel (Platycypha amboniensis):
  8. Magadi tilapia (Alcolapia alcalicus):
  9. Giant wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus):
  10. Victoria stonebasher (Marcusenius victoriae).

From amphibians to cycads, it is apparent that biodiversity in East Africa faces a serious threat, as some species are staring at extinction. The endangered species of Kenya listed here show that the region has remarkable biodiversity. It is up to us to conserve it, such that the future generations could also enjoy the varied life forms.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

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]]> 1225 Invasive species in Kenya: Plants and Animals http://silvica.site/invasive-species-in-kenya/ Thu, 28 Jan 2021 14:42:56 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1214 Most invasive species are introduced, and they tend to multiply fast if they do not have natural enemies/barriers

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By David Okul

Like in many parts of the world, invasive species in Kenya are a threat to the native wildlife and vegetation. Consequently, human health and economies become a risk from the invasive species as a bulk of the commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities depend on a healthy native system.

But how can we define if a species is invasive or not? In general terms, invasive species refer to species not native to the ecosystem and causes harm to the environment, ecosystem, or human health. The species are also likely to reproduce quickly or spread aggressively. Although most invasive species come from different countries, it is not often the case. A species may be invasive even it’s native to a different region in the same country.

Whether intentionally or by accident, humans are the major spreaders of invasive species. Intentional in the sense that some are released pets (e.g. Burmese pythons in the everglades), while some are intentionally planted (such as landscaping plants). Under the Wildlife and Conservation Act of Kenya (2013), various species are classified as invasive. This article will outline these species.

Not Many Mammals are listed as Invasive in Africa

The only mammal listed as invasive in Kenya is the Coypu rat (Myocastor coypus). The large semi-aquatic rodent is native to South America but is nominated by IUCN as one of the “100 of the World’s Worst invaders.” Today, the Coypu rat is found in every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Initially, they were kept for their fur, but many farmers learned that its fur is not premium in the market like a rabbit, minx, or fox furs. The rats eat a lot of vegetation and reproduce fast. A breeding pair can create 16,000 individuals within three years. Crazy numbers! But the species has a gestation period of 130 days resulting in a litter of 4-6 young ones on average, and a female can reproduce 48 hours after giving birth. Also, consider that the nutria can eat vegetation 25% of its body weight. It is no wonder that the Kenyan government is cautious about it.

Nevertheless, some mammals should be a concern for Kenya and across Africa because of their invasive nature. Examples of invasive mammals in Africa include feral cats, goats, house rats, and European rabbits. Feral cats are particularly nasty to any ecosystem as they kill any species they can. All in all, the impacts of invasive mammals are not as severe when compared to plants.

Opuntia (Prickly pear) species is among the most notorious invasive plant species in the world

Invasive plant species in Kenya

Various plant species are known to be invasive in Africa. They take up pastureland and some are persistent weeds in cultivation lands. Regardless, all invasive plant species tend to limit the production of indigenous species.

  1. Mathenge (Velvet mesquite) (Prosopis juliflora): It is perhaps the most notable invasive woody species in Kenya and some parts of Africa. In Kenya, it was introduced in the Baringo region, but it did spread to other parts. It spread aggressively leading to the loss of pasture. Among its other negative impacts include punctures to tyres, reduced biodiversity, loss of agricultural land, injury to livestock, and blocking challenges.
  2. Tickberry (Lantana camara): Lantana camara is native to South America but graders have moved it across the tropics, mainly because of its showy flowers, which produce berries. The berries are eaten by birds that further disperse the seeds. The species push native plants because livestock cannot its leaves or stems.
  3. Nile Cabbage (Pistia stratiotes): the plant was introduced to Africa from South America. It is grown as an ornamental and often used to provide cover for fish in aquariums or ponds. However, its devastating effects in East Africa outpower its positive effects. It has clogged water bodies and irrigation channels.
  4. Yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana): The plant is naturalized in many parts of Africa as it is commonly used for fencing. As the plant is poisonous to humans and most animals, it tends to spread fast.
  5. Mauritius thorn (Caesalpinia decapelata): The woody plant has its origin in Southern and Eastern Asia but has been naturalized in East Africa. Because of its thorns and fast growth, it is often used as a live fence in Africa as it can prevent invasion from notorious animals, like baboons. Regardless, the species chokes native vegetation. It has also been reported to clogs water infrastructure.
  6. Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium): The origins of the noxious weed are relatively unknown, but it is suspected to be native to the Americas region. The species has spread to most parts of the world. In Africa, it is common in roadsides, agricultural lands, disturbed areas, and riverbanks. The plant is used as medicine and narcotics. It is invasive because of its tendency to spread fast in agricultural areas reducing crop yields.
  7. Yellow bells (Tecoma stans): The plant is native to the Americas and has spread over the world because of its ornamental appeal. However, its seeds are dispersed by the wind at a rapid rate leading to weed-like tendencies in riparian areas and roadsides.
  8. Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana): It is native to Mexico and Texas but has spread as a weed to most tropical areas of the world. It is poisonous to livestock but deaths are few because it is not readily eaten. Its seed remains dormant for a long time making its control difficult.
  9. Opuntia exaltata Long spine cactus
  10. Opuntia ficus– indica Sweet prickly pear
  11. Opuntia vulgaris ” Drooping prickly pear: Most of the Opuntia species were introduced to Kenya by the British as ornamental plants. The plant thrives in arid conditions suppressing grass and other indigenous vegetation. The cacti have sweet fruits, but they are dangerous to livestock because the spine can cause injury to animals feeding. Regardless, animals like baboons and elephants help the spread of the plant as they feed on the seeds and help disperse. A species of opuntia was considered Australia’s worst weed before a series of biological agents were deployed to fight it.
  12. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Water hyacinth has numerous negative effects on Lake Victoria including obstructing waterways, the spread of water-borne diseases, and increase of water loss through evapotranspiration.

Acacia reficiens is a species that is native to Kenya but is treated as an invasive species in some areas. For instance, the species has colonized former grasslands in parts of northern Kenya. As such, local NGOs with the community are cutting down the trees and planting grasses. Similarly, Acacia mellifera in southern parts of Kenya is also not desirable by the pastoralists. 

In some areas of Africa, a list of invasive plants also includes the Acacia wattles (especially Acacia mearnsii), Eucalyptus species (probably because of its negative impacts on wetlands), and castor oil plant (Ricinus communis).

Although Agama lizards are native to Africa, they are invasive in some areas of the world

Other animals listed as invasive in Kenya

Apart from mammals, other animals including birds, reptiles, and anthropoids are classified as invasive. The following section outlines them

Birds

  1. Speckled Mousebird (Colius striatus):
  2. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasialus colchicus)
  3. Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)
  4. Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
  5. House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus)
  6. Common Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis)
  7. Rose-ringed (Ring-necked) Parakeet (Psittacula krameria): It is a common ornamental bird across the world. However, it is known to escape cages and free itself from captivity. The species is recognized as invasive in most parts of Africa.
  8. Common (European) Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
  9. Rock Dove (Feral pigeon) (Columba livia): It is thought that the first rock doves came to Africa from Dutch settlers in South Africa in 1652. They are a menace to the agricultural landscapes.
  10. Beautiful fruit dove (Ptilinopus pulchellus)
  11. Black-chinned fruit dove (Ptilinopus leclancheri)
  12. Coroneted fruit dove (Ptilinopus coronulatus)
  13. Mariana fruit dove (Ptilinopus roseicapilla)
  14. Pink-spotted fruit dove (Ptilinopus perlatus)
  15. Wompoo fruit dove (Ptilinopus magnificus)
  16. House Crow (Corvus splendens): Urban pest that damages crops and is a hazard at the airports. It was introduced in Kenya in about 1947, and is responsible for killing fruit bats.
  17. Red-billed Quelea (Quelea quelea)

Reptiles

  1. Red-headed agama lizard (Agama agama)
  2. Brother’s Island tuatara lizard (Sphenodon guntheri)
  3. Orange-throated whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis hyperythra beldingi)
  4. Rainbow kopje skink (Lampropholis delicata)
  5. Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis)
  6. Red diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus exsul)
  7. Burmese star tortoise (Geochelone platynotan

Invertebrates

Crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)

Fishes

Although not listed in Kenya’s wildlife Act, an invasive species of interest to conservationists is the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus). The species was introduced to Lake Victoria in 1954 to address the issue of overfishing. However, Nile Perch is the main cause for the disappearance of over 200 endemic fish species in the lake.

It is apparent that invasive species have a devastating impact on the native species. In Kenya, the impact of invasive species is particularly significant. Because the economy depends on natural resources for industries like tourism and agriculture. Even more concerning is the growing list of endangered species in Kenya, whose habitats are destroyed by the invasive species.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

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]]> 1214 Confusion of Charcoal Regulation in Kenya http://silvica.site/confusion-of-charcoal-regulations-in-kenya/ Tue, 26 Jan 2021 11:16:54 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1208 By David Okul Charcoal regulation in Kenya is confusing. For instance, the question of ‘is charcoal production illegal in Kenya?’ is quite complicated. The simple

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By David Okul

Charcoal regulation in Kenya is confusing. For instance, the question of ‘is charcoal production illegal in Kenya?’ is quite complicated. The simple answer is, yes, charcoal production is illegal in Kenya.  According to the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016). Under other offences, section 67, 1e of the act states that ‘Any person who makes or is found in possession of charcoal in a national, county or provisional forest; or in the community forest, private forest or farmlands without a licence or permit of the owner as the case may be’ commits an offence.

The act indicates that the penalty for illegal production and possession of charcoal is a fine not exceeding 50,000 Kenya shillings or imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or both.

From the statement, I interpret that charcoaling is illegal in national, county, or provisional forests. However, the activity is legal in community, private forests, and farmlands with a licence. What confuses me, at the first instance, is if an owner of a private or community forest requires a licence or permit to undertake charcoaling. However, based on Charcoal regulations of 2019 and 2005, I find that a landowner does not require a licence to produce charcoal if he/she is producing it for subsistence use. Additionally, he/she should not burn charcoal from endangered or threatened tree species.

Charcoal regulations of 2009 Vs the 2015 Draft

I remember learning about the charcoal regulations of 2009 at the University. Using Google search, I am able to locate the draft Charcoal Regulations of 2015 on the Kenya Forest Action Working Group website. Among other things, the regulations mention the County Department responsible for forestry to be the responsible body for:

  1. The issuance of licences for the production and trading of charcoal.
  2. Monitor the charcoal production areas
  3. Create awareness in charcoal production technology and trading

Further, the regulations mention that a person who wishes to produce charcoal on his land for his own consumption, shall not require a licence but produce not more than 3 bags per month.

Like the 2009 regulations, the 2015 draft further requires individuals to have a charcoal movement permit, certificate of origin of the charcoal, and receipt from a trader transport charcoal in Kenya. The regulations also seek to protect endangered and threatened species from charcoal production.  Commercial charcoal producers are encouraged to form Charcoal Production Associations.

But the regulations for 2015 were still drafts. It, therefore, implies that the 2009 charcoal regulations are still relevant. These regulations have shortcomings considering that they were scripted before the 2010 constitution. As such, they recognize Kenya Forest Service as the authority in charge of issuing licences for the production and transportation of charcoal in Kenya. Another glaring miss on the 2009 regulation is that it does not specify the number of bags permitted for subsistence use. In contrast, the 2015 draft outlines 3 bags per month as the maximum for a person to produce charcoal without a licence. 

charcoal is a common energy source in Kenya
Charcoal is commonly used in the urban areas in Kenya, but its regulation is confusing

The charcoal ban in Kenya

Kenya needs to reduce its greenhouse emission by 30% by 2030 to attain its national target. To achieve the target, Kenya needs to address the issue of deforestation and land degradation. At the time of independence in 1963, Kenya had 10% cover which has now reduced to around 5% mainly because of deforestation and land degradation. Charcoal burning contributes to the degradation of forest resources in Kenya as it is mainly done in an unsustainable way. Bans have been used in efforts to reduce the destruction.

In January 2018, the governor of Kitui banned the sale and transportation of charcoal outside of the county. The following month, the Kenyan government issued a logging moratorium that effectively banned the movement of charcoal. Such interventions aim at reducing the rate of deforestation and land degradation. The government is also keen on promoting what it considers clean energy, like LPG, while discouraging the use of charcoal and firewood, because of health reasons. Personally, I believe that wood fuel is among the most sustainable energy source, but that is the topic of another blog post.

But Illegal charcoal production in Kenya is rampant

Despite the ban and strict charcoal regulation in Kenya, most charcoal produced and consumed is ‘illegal’. Partly because the product is in very high demand in urban places. According to ICRAF, 86% of Nairobi residents use charcoal, with 43% using it as their main source of energy. Because of demand, even Kitui charcoal is making its way to the Nairobi market. The sights of motorcycles and lorries with charcoal are common on major roads and highways. Although it’s anecdotal, I assume a bulk of the transporters of the charcoal do not comply with the relevant regulations. Similarly, charcoal kilns are a ubiquitous sight in most parts of rural Kenya. The ban has made the charcoal price increase four-fold in urban areas. The sad part is that the producers of the charcoal (the peasant farmers) get very little of the money. The big profiteers are the brokers, transporters, wholesalers, and corrupt government officials.

The need for an honest conversation on the charcoal regulation in Kenya

The reality is that the forestry resources in Kenya are increasingly experiencing degradation, partly because of charcoal and fuelwood. Additionally, wood fuel is a cause of some respiratory disease to Kenyans in urban centers who live in poorly ventilated houses. However, wood fuel has been, (and is), the major source of energy for Kenyans (if not Africans) for centuries. There is need to develop sustainable production methods and ensure that it is used safely. Silvica believes that the charcoal industry has a significant role to play in Africa’s fight against climate change.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

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]]> 1208 A Summary of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) http://silvica.site/kenya-forest-conservation-and-management-act/ Tue, 26 Jan 2021 07:47:22 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1204 The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) is a product of the review of the Forest Act (2015) to align it to the constitution

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The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) is a product of the review of the Forest Act (2015) to align it to the constitution of Kenya. One of the key changes of the Act is the inclusion of county governments in forest management and conservation. Other conspicuous provisions in the act include:

  • A forest status report and resource assessment report to be prepared every 2 and 5 years respectively by KFS. A GIS database should also be maintained regularly by KFS
  • Any person may petition the variation of forest boundaries
  • A public forest strategy formulated every five years
  • Allows for more involvement of communities and private sectors in forestry

The act has 11 parts and 2 schedules. The table below is a summary of the 11 parts of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act.

Parts

Key Points

1.       Preliminary

Captures general things about the act such as citation and commencement, interpretation, applications, guiding principles, public forest policy, and public forest strategy

2.       Administration

Kenya Forest Service (KFS) is the body responsible for the management of public forests in Kenya. Some of the key responsibilities of KFS include the implementation of forest management plans, issuing licences, and permits for use of forest resources, establishing benefit-sharing arrangements, and build the capacity of the County government in forestry.

The roles of other institutions such as Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) and Kenya Forestry College are also outlined.

County governments are required to implement national forest policies and manage public forests in counties

It also outlines the appointment of honorary foresters and the establishment of forest conservation areas and committees

3.       Financial provisions

It addresses the source of funds for KFS, which is mainly from the national treasury

It also defines Forest Conservation and Management

Trust Fund that seeks to support forestry programmes such as payment for ecosystem services

The board prepares the budget at least two months before the end of the financial year (June)

4.       Classification and management of forests

Forests are classified as s public, community, or private. But community and private forests are registered by KFS

Community forests upon registration can benefit from Forest Conservation and Management Trust Fund and get technical support from county governments

The service can declare a mismanaged community or private forest as a provisional forest

Each county to have an arboretum or a green zone

5% of any housing development project should be a green zone

With counsel from KEFRI, the cabinet secretary can declare a tree species to be protected

No individual can fell, cut, damage, or remove, trade

in or export or attempt to export any protected tree species

with backing from an EIA, the service can offer a concession to utilize public forests

Any person/service or institution can enter into a management agreement for all or parts of a public forest. But no management agreement includes settlements in the forest

5.       Community participation

Outlines the obligations of the community forest association.

The association sets out the use of forest resources, methods of biodiversity conservation, methods for biodiversity monitoring, and protection of wildlife.

The CFAs are entitled to forest user rights such as collection of forest products, ecotourism and education activities.

6.       Incentives for increasing forest and tree cover

Investors in forests shall share the benefits of their investment with

local communities e.g. employment, infrastructure, education

Tax and fiscal incentives (by Government)  to promote forest conservation and management

Promote national tree planting week and the International Day of Forests (21st March)

7.       Licencing and Trade in forest products

The KFS can allow the private sector to participate in sustainable forestry management through licenses, contracts, joint management agreements, or concessions

The Service shall publish in the Gazette a chain-of-custody system for the verification of the origin of forest products from the public, community, and private forests

8.       Enforcement and compliance

Chief conservator of forests and forest officers can demand licence and search any person suspected to have possession of forest products.

Seizing and detaining livestock found roaming illegally in the forest.

Officers of the service above the rank of Sergeant Forest Ranger have the same powers conferred on a police officer under the Criminal Procedure Code and the National Police Service Act, 2011#

Officers with paramilitary training can use firearms

9.       Offences and Penalties

Except under licence/permit, the following are illegal activities in a public/provisional forest: illegal harvesting of forest products, importation or exportation of forest produce, illegally marking forest produce, arson of a forest and introduction of exotic genetic material, smoking, livestock grazing, cultivating, and possession of logging equipment.

Other offences related to counterfeiting and quarrying are defined.

The penalties for each group of offences are also outlined.

Any dispute that may arise in respect of forest conservation and management shall be referred to the lowest possible

structure under the devolved system of government initially but may be forwarded to National Environment Tribunal for determination if unresolved. An appeal, where applicable, lie in the Environment and Land Court as established under the Environment and Land Court Act, 2011.

10.    Miscellaneous

Gives provisions for the regulations of the act

The act aligns with the constitution and international treaties where Kenya is a signatory

11.   Transitional provisions

The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) repeals the Kenya Forest Act (2005) and Timber Act (1972). However, public forests and licences issued before the act are valid.

Schedules of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act

The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act has 3 schedules as follows:

  • The first schedule indicates the tenure of office and conduct of the business of the board
  • The second schedule outlines the conditions for public participation, and
  • The third schedule lists the gazetted public forests in Kenya

Issues with the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act

Although the Act aligns forestry regulations in Kenya with the constitution and international treaties, various shortcomings are evident:

  • The Chief Conservator of Forests is determined as the person in charge of day to day running of KFS (Section 14(4)). However other instances mention the director-general (Section (35(2b).
  • Although the act claims that public forests are managed by KFS, it also contradicts itself by claiming that county governments should manage the public forests under their jurisdiction. The clash with devolution is also evident in the classification of county forests (yet the act initially mention forests could only be public, private, or community). However, there is a feeling that the KFS mandate is public forests, while the counties have a mandate over the community and private forests. This feel is captured by the fact that the Chief Conservator of Forests supervises the implementation of management plans in public forests. In contrast, county governments supervise the implementation of management plans in community and private forests (Section 47,6).
  • Although fines and penalties for illegal forest activity have been increased in the act. The penalties are still low for some offences. For instance, the maximum fine for tree poaching is 100,000 Kenya Shillings.

All in all, the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act provides a good start point for Kenya in developing sustainable and productive forests. It would be great if some of Kenya’s forests could be regarded as important forests of the world.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.  

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]]> 1204 Important Forests in The World http://silvica.site/important-forests-in-the-world/ Mon, 18 May 2020 18:40:53 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=903 Forests play a vital role in maintaining a sound environment, thanks to the fact that they contain the most extensive animal and plant diversity. Better still, forests have billions of trees that are particularly essential for absorbing carbon dioxide, thus helping to address the contemporary challenge of climate change. Forests cover about 30% of the […]

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Forests play a vital role in maintaining a sound environment, thanks to the fact that they contain the most extensive animal and plant diversity. Better still, forests have billions of trees that are particularly essential for absorbing carbon dioxide, thus helping to address the contemporary challenge of climate change.

Forests cover about 30% of the landmass on earth. However, most of the forest sites face various challenges that threaten their very existence. As such, we should all support the conservation of the world’s forest. We have outlined some of the important forests in the world.

The Expansive Amazon Rainforest

About 10% of the global biodiversity is in the Amazon (Source, WWF)

The massive rainforest lies on a territory stretching across nine nations.  It is the world’s largest rainforest since it represents over half of the rainforests in the world. Approximately 70% of the rainforest covers the Brazilian territory, although there is a significant part of the forest in Peru. Initially, the forest spread on a total area of approximately 7 million sq. Km (2.7 million sq mile).

Nonetheless, the forest is today estimated to cover an area of about 5.5 million sq. Km (2.12 sq. miles), thanks to heavy logging that has diminished the forest cover in the previous decades.  The Amazon Rainforest is considered critical since it hosts valuable freshwater resources alongside a wealth of diversity. Moreover, the rainforest plays a vital role in global biodiversity. Still, the forest is a carbon sink and hence offers essential ecological services.

The biodiversity of Congo Forest

As the world’s 2nd most extensive tropical forest, the Congo Forest forms a quarter of the earth’s remaining tropical forests. It covers an estimated area of 1.9 million sq. Kms (734,000 sq. miles). The Congo Forest is essential for a myriad of reasons. First, it houses 10,000 plant species, hundreds of mammals, and over 1,000 bird species. Secondly, the vast tropical forest is home to the world’s largest ape species, namely the Bonobo, gorilla, and chimpanzee. Besides playing a vital role in global diversity, the forest is home to over 24 million people who live within the forest area. Most of these people depend entirely on it for their livelihood.

The Coniferous East-Siberian Taiga

Located in East-Siberia, this vast coniferous forest stretches across a land area of about 4 million km sq. The forest is remarkably essential owing to its diversity of flora and fauna. The forest isn’t just the largest forest reserve in Europe, but also the 5th largest forest reserve worldwide. Furthermore, it hosts thousands of plant and animal species, most of which can only be seen here (endemic). It is also the only forest that stretches between tundra in the North and a group of temperate forests in the south.

The Scandinavian & Russian Taiga, a multipurpose forest complex

The forest is ranked as Europe’s largest eco-region, covering approximately 2 million sq. Kilometers (772,000 sq. miles). It spreads across Norway, Sweden, western Russia, and Finland.  The forest covers roughly a third of the European continent. It is crucial as a global ecological spot, thanks to the fact that it absorbs massive carbon dioxide emissions. The forest is specifically vital because it offers an extraordinary nesting habitat for thousands of bird species. It is also a haven for mining, tourism, and fossil fuel exploration.

The Sinharaja Forest, a World Heritage Site

The Sinharaja forest is the largest in Sri Lanka, with an area of 88 Km2 (34 miles2). It is also the country’s only remaining tropical rainforest. The forest is a significant part of Sri Lanka and the universe at large. Marjory because of its extraordinary biodiversity as it houses several species of endangered wildlife. It contains over half of Sri Lanka’s endemic mammals and butterflies. In 1988, UNESCO listed it as a World Heritage site thanks to its valuable, rich ecosystems and diverse living heritage. The forest boasts over 154 bird species that have been known to coexist in feeding flocks.

The Picturesque Mindo-Nambillo Forest

The sprawling, beautiful tropical forest is situated in Ecuador. It is one of Latin America’s most important ecological sites. Moreover, it is an incredible tourist attraction that keeps millions of travelers coming to Ecuador. The present-day tropical forest is a remarkably beautiful private reserve, which houses countless plants, birds, and mammal species. It is a treasure to behold, courtesy of the more than 450 bird species that live in the forest. It further houses a wide array of orchids.

The Avatar-inspiring Daintree Forest

Daintree forest is the world’s oldest rainforest, and it forms an integral part of the Australian treasure. The rainforest is a remarkable conservation center for birds, plants, and other mammals. For example, it houses the largest concentration of saltwater crocodiles in the universe.  It has the highest number of threatened animals and plant species.  The 1200 Km2 (463 square miles) rainforest was used as an inspiration for ‘Avatar’- one of the world’s best-selling movies.

The Pristine Xishuangbanna Rainforest

Located in China, this beautiful tropical rainforest is one of Asia’s biggest and most important forests. It is the world’s only living museum of flora and fauna. The 2500 Km2 (967 square miles) forest is also a center for ecosystem research for the Chinese government.  It has the most significant number of endangered plants and animal species in Asia. The forest is further home to multiple primitive villages that allows humans to coexist with wildlife.

Sundarbans, a Vital Mangrove Forest in Asia

The mangrove rainforest is located along with the coastal parts of the mighty Bay of Bengal. Due to its unmatched biodiversity, the forest has become highly significant as a conservation area. It has the widest variety of mangroves than any mangrove rainforest in the world.  The forest is a crucial natural wildlife spot. It has vast numbers of water monitor lizards and Bengal tigers, not to mention a variety of endangered species living in the mangrove rainforest.

The Endemic Valdivian Rainforest

Located in South America, the 250,000 Km2 (95,800 square miles) temperate rainforest is South America’s only rainforest. It houses the Andean Mountains, which add plenty of biodiversity to it. The forest is one of the world’s most important forests since it houses several fascinating creatures like the Kodkod and the southern Pudu.  Its vegetation comprises a variety of rare trees, such as the endangered Monkey Puzzle Tree. Approximately half of the woody species in the forest are endemic to the region 

The growth and harvest of palm oils is a major threat to many rainforests (Image by blackend464 from Pixabay)

Forests remain crucial systems that support our lives. On the surface, forests appear similar as they encompass a group of trees. However, each forest has its unique composition of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Some important forests in the world are facing threats ranging from human encroachment to deforestation. Others like Borneo and New Guinea forests face a challenge from palm oil production. We must act to conserve the important forests of the world.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.  

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]]> 903 A Blog Course of Beekeeping in Kenya http://silvica.site/a-blog-course-of-beekeeping-in-kenya/ Sat, 31 Aug 2019 15:33:10 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=675 By David Okul August 31, 2019 This course unit is designed to enhance the learners’ knowledge on the science and art of beekeeping with special focus on beekeeping in Kenya. We think that the content is appropriate for any beekeeper in Sub-sahara Africa. Beekeeping is a less capital intensive investment can combine with other land […]

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By David Okul
August 31, 2019

A modern apiary significantly increases honey production (Image by Svetlbel from Pixabay)

This course unit is designed to enhance the learners’ knowledge on the science and art of beekeeping with special focus on beekeeping in Kenya. We think that the content is appropriate for any beekeeper in Sub-sahara Africa. Beekeeping is a less capital intensive investment can combine with other land use options such as agriculture and conservation rather well. It is anticipated that by the end of this blog course, the learner will have the knowledge and skill to successfully start and run sustainably an improved/ modern beekeeping enterprise.

Bees and their products, especially honey has been very important throughout the history of mankind. Their benefits range from agricultural in pollination of farmlands to nutritional by providing honey to medicinal to economical, just to describe a few. Among the greatest advantage beekeeping has to other farming options is that it neither requires much capital nor space.

Summary of learning outcomes:

To achieve this unit the learner should be able to:

  1. Describe the importance of beekeeping at household and national level
  2. Describe the behaviour of bees
  3. Demonstrate the ability and knowledge to establish and manage a modern apiary
  4. Appreciate the economic and environmental potential of beekeeping

History and importance of beekeeping

Honeybee (Apis mellifera) is the foundation of beekeeping. It is among the most common and the most known insects in the world.

Definition of terms

Apiary

This is the place where bee colonies are kept. It is also called a bee yard

Beekeeping

This refers to the science and art of managing bees for honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis, bee pollen, royal jelly or venom and provision of various by products and services.

Hive

It refers to a man made container which honey bee colony makes its home.

Colony

This refers to a community of bees.

History of beekeeping

In 1851, a man called Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth discovered the idea of bee space. Bee space refers to a space of 7 mm that must always remain between two frames or combs. It is this idea that is used in making hives in modern bee keeping.

The attempts to modernize beekeeping in Kenya began in around 1950s when colonial government set up honey collection centers in semi arid areas of Kenya. These centres mainly dealt with honey collection and not production. This made people to destroy hives to collect honey. Consequently, bees were either burnt out completely or swarmed to establish new colonies. These honey collecting centres collapsed shortly due to this and mismanagement.

After independence, a 10 year national beekeeping project (1971-1981) was established. Through the project, The Kenya Top Bar Hive and other equipment were developed. A beekeeping section was established within the Ministry of Agriculture and a National Beekeeping Station established in Ngong Forest near Lenana High School. The station is a great resource centre for any person undertaking a beekeeping initiative in Kenya.

Potential of beekeeping in Kenya

Beekeeping in Kenya can be a viable business venture because:

  • Over 80% of land in Kenya is suitable for beekeeping
  • Kenya has the potential of producing 100,000 tonnes of honey and 10,000 tonnes of wax annually. Currently only 20% of this potential is tapped.
  • With major lifestyle diseases, natural products like honey have bigger markets.
  • Globally, there is concern on the reduction of honey bees

 
 

Major problems facing apiaculture in Kenya

Despite the great potential of beekeeping, major challenges also face beekeepers including:

  • Defensive nature of the African honey bee
  • Inadequate training for the extension staff and farmers
  • Lack of effective pest control measures
  • Poor marketing structures

The Government of Kenya is encouraging beekeeping to rural areas so as to provide additional income.

Economic importance of bees

Bees whether wild or kept in apiaries are useful. Some of the importance uses of bees include:

  • Production of nutritious foods such as honey, bee pollen and royal jelly.
  • Income generation from the sale of bee products
  • Pollination of most food crops
  • Contribution to biodiversity. Bees help sustain natural habitats through pollination and hence reproduction of plants in these habitats.
  • A number of bee products are used in treatment of diseases.

*Can you think of other importance of bees?

 

Important Bee behaviour a beekeeper should know

Bee colony

A single honey-bee cannot live for very long on its own. There would be no point in doing so. A worker bee cannot reproduce; a queen bee cannot construct comb, collect food or even feed herself; and a drone bee is able to accomplish only one task and that is to mate. All three castes of honey-bee that live in a colony of bees – the queen, the worker and the drone – therefore can live only as part of a colony. When you first look into a hive and see thousands of bees apparently moving around at random and flying off the comb in all directions, the colony appears to be a place of chaos. But it isn’t. All this movement has a purpose. Let us first look at the different caste in a honey bee colony:

There is usually one queen bee in a colony, the drones can number to a few hundreds while the worker bees can be as many as 50,000 in a colony. All life in a hive is dictated by the queen.

The major function of the queen is to lay eggs and reproduce. This is important since the life expectancy of the worker bee is only around 1 month. The queen is also responsible for maintaining cohesion of the colony and is the matriarch. The drone function is to mate with the queen, since the queen only mates once in her lifetime, the drones virtually have no job in the colony!

The worker bee is a busy bee. The saying as busy as a bee should be specific to worker bees. She almost does everything in the bee hive. Scientists have discovered that the division of labour among the worker bee depends on her age. During her first days, the worker will be cleaning the cells, when 3-10 days old, she would take care of the queen, build wax and feed the young ones. At 15-20 days old, she would build wax, process nectar, guard the hive and do undertaking. When mature (21-35 days) the worker bee will forage for nectar, water and pollen. She is also responsible for the colony’s defence.

Special bee behaviour

There are bee behaviours that are of interest to a bee farmer and they include:

  • Swarming
  • Migration
  • Supercedure
  • Absconding
  • Aggressiveness

You can research more on each of these behaviours. The National Farmers Information Service provides a detailed explanation of the honeybee behaviour and communication 

Communication methods in bees

Bees communicate by various stimuli such as physical stimuli (dances) and chemical stimuli (pheromones).

The honey bee dances

The dance language of honeybees was discovered by Karl von Frisch (1967). While observing bees, Karl noted that the scout bees would go to look for nectar source. The other worker bees would go to the flowers without the scout, it therefore meant that the worker bee must have received directions from the scout. The scout gave direction by use of dances and various dances have been recorded in hives including:

  • Circular or round dance
  • Waggle dance
  • Sickle dance

Watch honeybee Waggle dance here

 

Pheromones

Pheromones are substances produced by one individual but will cause a particular response to members of the same species. Pheromones are produced from glands and include the following:

  • Nasanov gland that produce pheromones to help worker bees find the hive
  • Koschevnikov glands is an alarm pheromone. After stinging, the pheromone attract other bees to sting the same place.
  • Mandibular gland of the queen produces pheromones that have a variety of functions including attracting drones during mating flights.

Beekeeping equipment

Now that you have learnt the history, importance and behaviour of bees, lets get down to the serious activity of beekeeping.

The hive

This is the structure in which bees live and raise their young ones. There are mainly three types of hives used in Kenya:

  • Log hive (traditional hive)
  • Kenya top bar hive
  • Langstroth hive

Modern hives in beekeeping are Langstroth and Kenya top bar hive. The major advantage of a modern hive is that it has moveable frames and this makes inspection and general working with the bees easier.

Other beekeeping equipment

The smoker

This equipment is for providing smoke. Smoke calms the bees and makes working with the bees easier. Never go to a hive without a smoker! Make sure you have enough fuel to smoke, fuel can be old cloth rags, grass or wood shavings.

The catcher box

This is a small box used for trapping swarms which are later transferred to the hives.

Hive tool

This is a knifelike iron bar used for scrapping propolis from the top bars. It is also used for prying top bars apart.

Bee brush

This is made of soft sisal fibres and is used to sweep off the bees from the comb during honey harvesting.

Bee suit

This is a set of protective clothing put on while working with the bees in order to avoid stings. It consists of an overall covering the whole body, a veil for the head, a pair of gloves for the hands and a pair of gumboots for the feet.

Queen excluder

This is a framed wire mesh in a hive. It serves two functions:

  • Restrict the queen to the brood area so that the workers can store clean honey in the comb cells
  • It prevents the colony from swarming since the bees will not leave the honey without the queen.

Feeder box

It is used to feed the colony sugary syrup in seasons when there are fewer flowers.

Other beekeeping equipment include honey extractors, wax press and wax melter.

Apiary establishment and management

Factors to consider that are important to bees and beekeepers

Knowledge of the bee plants

An individual should know the flowering patterns of important bee plants. Other important information about bee plants include:

  • Duration of the flowering plants.
  • Know the period between budding and actual flowering
  • Plant selected should be high nectar and pollen producers.

Forests, woodlands and even grasslands with flowering herbs and shrubs can be areas for beekeeping. Agricultural crops that have high nectar such as sunflower, coffee, legumes, bananas are also good for beekeepers.

Source of water

Bees require water for various uses such as:

  • Cooling the hive
  • Feeding larvae
  • For their own use.

Apiary should be close to water. If water is not available, it can be supplied in containers with floating sticks for the bees to step to avoid drowning.

Human conflicts

Apiary location should be away from public places such as schools, highways and estates so that the bees do not disturb the people. Although honey is sweet, the bees also sting!

Fence/hedge

Trees and bushes can surround the apiary so that the bees fly high when leaving and returning the apiary thus reducing the risk of becoming a nuisance to the nearby activities. Fencing also helps to prevent animals that might disturb the bees.

Shelter

Colonies should be sheltered from the sun, wind and floods. Wind causes drifting of bees and poor communication.

Drainage

A well drained place is recommended to avoid absconding due to high humidity. Waterlogged soils cause the rotting of hives and posts.

Accessibility

The area must be accessible to motorists, beekeeper and human traffic.

Pests

The apiary must be free from areas with frequent attacks by pests e.g. honey badger, ants and man

Fire hazard

Avoid locations with frequent bush fires. It is wise to cut the grass short to minimize fire hazards.

Routine management of apiaries

Inspection

Honeybees colonies should be inspected at least once a month. The purpose is to know your bees well, know the colonies that are of good temperament, top honey producers, hardworking, etc. It is good  to know which colonies are best to multiply.

It is also important to check if the hives structures are stable, standing well and if there is nail coming out, replace it. Sometimes complete repair of the hive might be necessary.

Cleaning

Keep the apiary clean by slashing all the weeds and grass around the apiary. This puts away pests such as ants and beetles.

Greasing

Wires are greased to avoid other insects like ants to crawl inside the hive.

Bee behaviour

Check for abnormal bee behaviours such as bees clustering around the entrance. This might mean that bees lack space due to overpopulation or un-harvested honey. It could also mean that there is too much heat in the hive or bees want to swarm.

Record keeping

Record keeping is important to any bee farmer. The records to be kept can include the following:

  • Date and time of last inspection
  • Age of the queen
  • Date of last harvest
  • Amount of honey in stores
  • Characteristic of the hive
  • Swarming records
  • Cash flows

Honey harvesting

  • The ideal time of harvesting honey is in the evening (after 7.00 Pm)
  • Do not harvest honey in rainy weather because honey may absorb water and become too watery
  • Use a bee suit and a smoker always. Never use fire!.
  • Harvest combs that are at least two thirds capped or sealed full of honey. Uncapped honey contain too much water and will start to ferment.
  • Cut away the comb leaving around 1cm for bees to build combs
  • Do not harvest the brood so that the bees continue to produce honey and not to swarm.
  • Observe general hygiene while handling honey. Remember honey is food!
  • Do not store honey in metal containers

Here is a video about essential skills needed in the nursery

 

Honeybee products

Bees produce various products for various uses. The products include honey, propolis and bee pollen which are plant products modified/changed by bees. Beeswax, royal jelly and bee venom are made by bees themselves.

  1. Honey: honey is used for various purposes in different cultures. This includes use as food, food additive or medicine. Never boil honey as this destroys its flavor and medicinal characteristics. While handling honey, please remember it is food and should be handled in the cleanest way possible.
  1. Propolis: this is a sticky black or brown substance that is used by bees in sealing holes in the hive, embalming/ covering dead hive invaders that cannot be removed or to repair combs. Hundreds of chemical compounds are found in propolis and which can be used in manufacture of medicine e.g. for ulcer healing, anti-viral, anti-histamine, anti-inflammatory etc.
  1. Bee venom: the purpose of venom is to defend bees from its predators. The venom is transmitted through stinging. The bee dies after stinging. Bee venom has over 60 components which can be used medicinally in treating rheumatic disorders such as gout, arthritis and is even investigated in treating cancer. Some people claim that it is also a good for people suffering from HIV and AIDS.
  1. Royal Jelly: this is a white creamy substance produced from mandibular glands of worker bees and is used to feed developing and mature queen bees. It is used to make cosmetic and skin care products. It can also be used as specialized health food.
  2. Beeswax: beeswax is the primary material used for making combs. The combs are used for rearing brood and storing honey and pollen. Beeswax is produced from wax glands in bees. Man uses beeswax for various purposes including making polish, capsule coating and candles.
  1. Bee pollen: it refers to pollen of plants found in hives. The pollen is usually from variety of plants therefore the pollen will vary from hive to hive. Bee pollen is used by bees for food and the first three days of the life a bee, the diet is usually pollen after which they eat honey. The diet of the queen is however royal jelly.

Importance of Honeybee in Modern Agriculture

Majority of agricultural crops are dependent on insect activity for their pollination. The bees are efficient pollinators because they are active all year round, have long tongue, have body hair coverage, have large colony population and they frequently visit crops. However, monoculture, use of insecticides, use of greenhouses may make the bees or other insects less effective in pollination. 

Beekeeping as business

Many financial benefits can arise from keeping bees. These range from selling products such as honey to selling services such as pollination by hiring out bees!

In starting a beekeeping business, one should first list all the equipment necessary for honey production. If finances are limiting, as is often the case, one can start the beekeeping with basic equipment such as hives and hive tools and might either acquire slowly the rest equipment or hire them if need arises. Things like protective clothing and honey extractors can be hired.

Marketing honey

Good quality honey can fetch good prices. Therefore one should ensure his/her honey is clean and of highest grade. Honey can be sold as crude honey, refined honey, comb honey or chunk honey.

Storing and packing honey

  1. Honey should be stored in clean dry sealed containers
  2. Pack honey in plastic or glass jars
  3. The containers should be preferably see-through so that customers can see the product
  4. Metal containers are not good for storing honey because honey is acidic and may eat through the containers
  5. You should not store honey in other containers that have held anything other than food products before e.g. motor oil or paraffin containers.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics

The post A Blog Course of Beekeeping in Kenya appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

]]> 675 How to Plant Out Tree Seedlings in the Field http://silvica.site/planting-out-tree-seedlings-in-the-field/ Fri, 02 Aug 2019 19:28:03 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=612 By David Okul August 2, 2019 A small fraction of trees planted each year survive. Poor planting out techniques could be the cause of the low survival rates. Planting Out Tree Seedlings in the Field After all the hard work in the nursery, the next step is to plant out tree seedlings in the field. […]

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By David Okul
August 2, 2019

A small fraction of trees planted each year survive. Poor planting out techniques could be the cause of the low survival rates.

Planting Out Tree Seedlings in the Field

After all the hard work in the nursery, the next step is to plant out tree seedlings in the field. Each year, many people plant out tree seedlings in different places around the country; however, only a few trees survive. Although harsh environment such as drought, poor soil, wildlife, grazing animals and so forth account for the low survival, the major cause of the low survival is poor knowledge and techniques to control the planted out seedlings from the harsh environment. Healthy seedlings can be available at the nursery. However, if the seedlings are not planted out properly, the trees will never grow well. If you expect faster growth and survival rates, proper planting and tending of trees are of utmost importance.

TECHNIQUES TO PLANT OUT TREE SEEDLINGS 

The planting out techniques can be classified into five steps that include site preparation, seedling preparation, actual planting, tending activities, and management activities on the trees.

Site preparation

The site should be prepared well before planting out tree seedlings. The activities of site preparation include the following:

  1. Clearing: if there are bushes or grasses around your planting site, clear them before in order not to disturb the digging process and also prevent the competition between seedlings to be planted with moisture and sunshine. Bushes and branches should be cut at the base. Remove and pile the branches and grasses in an orderly manner. The branches can be used to make a temporary fence for the planted out trees while grasses can be added as mulch to conserve moisture.
  2. Digging: planting holes should be dug before the rainy season starts. The popular size for holes in tree planting is usually 2feet by 2 feet (60 by 60 cm). As a rule of the thumb, the planting hole should be big in size. The purpose of the planting hole is to soften the soil so that the roots of the trees can penetrate deep and the soil can catch and contain more moisture. Big holes will store more water and make it easier for healthy root development!
  3. Refilling of holes: before planting a tree seedling, the holes have to be refilled with some soil. This is because the planting hole is usually way bigger than the size of the pot holding the tree seedling. It is advisable to refill the hole with quality topsoil and if possible one can include well-decomposed manure. It is not advisable to mix dry branches and grasses while refilling the planting hole because they might attract termites.

Seedling preparation before planting

  1. Watering before transport: water the seedlings just before transporting them from the nursery to the planting site. This water will prevent the seedlings from drying up during transportation especially if the seedlings are to be transported over a long distance.
  2. Transportation of the seedlings: seedlings are living things and very fragile so they must be handled carefully. Do not pile them up each other while transporting. Using boxes or bags is recommended especially when the planting site is far.
  3. Provisional allocation site: the seedlings should be planted on the spot shortly after arriving at the site. In case it needs some time until planting, the seedlings must be kept in a shade and protected from the wind. Water them if necessary to keep them moist and vigorous.

Planting

Favourable weather should be targeted to plant out tree seedlings. Favourable weather means that rainfall should be available for at least the first three months. Tree seedlings can also be planted out in dry months as long as they are watered regularly.

The common planting process is:

  1. Making a hole the size of the pot using a panga or a stick. Remember that one is supposed to initially make a big hole and refill it with soil
  2. Hold the pot and harden the soil by your two hands
  3. Remove the pot carefully so that the soil does not break loose
  4. Planting the seedlings without removing the potting soil
  5. Pushing the soil around the seedlings firmly by hand to avoid leaving any space between the soil and the roots. One can also step on the soil around the seedlings to make it firm.

Silvica recommends that you plant out trees in the afternoon (after 3 pm). You don’t want to expose the tree to hot sun on its very first day, dou you?

Tending to planted out trees

  1. Slashing and weeding: if grasses and bushes grow around the planted out seedling, clear them to reduce the competition for light and nutrients. Be extra careful to avoid damaging the planted out tree. Grasses and other weeds seriously reduce the growth rate of trees.
  2. Shading: in the first dry season, planted out trees can benefit from shading. However, shading planted out trees is impractical in most cases. If possible, plant out seedlings where they can get some shade from other mature trees. Care should be taken, however, not to plant the seedlings in complete shade; remember trees, as with all plants, need sunshine for photosynthesis.
  3. Watering: watering is very necessary especially during the dry season. One can also use bottle watering, do you know what bottle watering is?

Instead of watering a tree seedling with little water daily, it is recommended that one soaks the planted out tree seedling with a lot of water once a week. This will encourage the development of strong roots and will make the seedling stronger.

  1. Protection: you should make efforts in protecting your seedlings from wild and domestic animals, insects and harsh weather. Can you suggest methods that can be used in protecting seedlings?

Management activities on trees

Depending on the objectives of tree plant, one can undertake various management interventions on planted out trees such as:

  1. Thinning: This is where one fell down some trees. The main purpose of thinning in a timber plantation is to increase the diameter measurements of the remaining trees.
  2. Pruning: this is the removal of branches from trees. It is done to produce knot-free timber.
  3. Coppicing: is a pruning technique where a tree or shrub is cut to near ground level. Eucalyptus species are known to coppice well.
  4. Pollarding: is a pruning method where a tree or shrub is cut at a higher level from the ground. Acacia kirkii are known to pollard well.

The ultimate growing trees in the field is to attain high survival rates. Nursery operations are tedious and cost a significant amount of time and money. Ensure that you get your value for money by implementing correct planting out techniques.

Proper techniques are needed to plant out tree seedlings effectively in the field
School-going Kenyan girls in a tree planting activity (Source: Elitre https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Kenyan_girls_plant_trees_%286310445412%29.jpg )

David Okul is a freelance writer, and a PhD student at a Kenyan university

The post How to Plant Out Tree Seedlings in the Field appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

]]> 612 Alternative to Seeds in a Tree Nursery http://silvica.site/alternative-to-seeds-in-a-tree-nursery/ Thu, 01 Aug 2019 19:53:20 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=581 By David Okul August 1, 2019 It is not a must to use seeds in a tree nursery Foresters would recommend alternatives to seeds in some situations. However, in many cases, seedlings are generally grown from seeds in a tree nursery. The two major alternatives to seeds in a nursery are vegetative propagation and the […]

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By David Okul
August 1, 2019

It is not a must to use seeds in a tree nursery

Foresters would recommend alternatives to seeds in some situations. However, in many cases, seedlings are generally grown from seeds in a tree nursery. The two major alternatives to seeds in a nursery are vegetative propagation and the use of wildlings. The alternative to seeds propagation method is useful where it is difficult to find seeds or germination rates of seeds are low.

Need for alternatives to seeds

  • Some seeds are hard to find
  • Others are difficult to germinate
  • The ready availability of alternatives that would otherwise go to waste e.g. wildlings
  • Desire to produce superior products (e.g. fruits in grafting)

Methods of Vegetative Propagation

Plants can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction occurs where pollen and stamen combine to produce seeds. In contrast, asexual reproduction includes the human-assisted cloning of plants. It is also referred to as vegetative propagation. Some methods of vegetative propagation in plants include:

  • Grafting: commonly used for fruit trees
  • budding (includes T-budding and patch budding (e.g.in oranges),
  • cuttings (depending on the species, cuttings can be taken from different parts of the stock plant such as stem, leaves, roots or buds),
  • air-layering (In this method, roots are induced on the stem of a plant using soil media or sawdust)
  • Division (e.g. pyrethrum),
  • runners (e.g. strawberry),
  • suckers (e.g. bananas and sugar cane),
  • Corms (g. in flowers like gladiolus),
  • crown (e.g. pineapples).

The method used depends on the type of plant being multiplied. A more detailed article on vegetative propagation for forestry can be accessed here http://www.environmentalpollution.in/forestry/vegetative-propagation/vegetative-propagation-of-forest-trees-forestry/4766 and here https://agritrop.cirad.fr/582175/1/Pages%20425-440%20de%20vegetative-propagation-of-forest-trees-3.pdf

Wildlings

A wildling refers to a young seedling that is growing naturally in the wild. It is possible for a person to collect a seedling wildling and transfer it to a nursery for care. The use of wildling is common in establishing indigenous tree nurseries. Some indigenous tree species are notoriously difficult to grow from seeds. Yet, their seedlings are readily available in the wild. Nursery managers could collect such species.

Collection of wildlings:

Ideally, a wildling should be 15 centimeters or less. Additionally, you should only take seedlings that have no chance of surviving in the wild. These can include seedlings that are concentrated in one place and seedlings that are growing in the wrong place (e.g. the roof of your house). It is somehow counterproductive to pick seedlings that have a chance of growing into trees naturally.

The best time to collect them is after the rains. The preparation of planting area should be completed before the actual commencing of wildling collection. Wildlings should be temporarily placed in a bucket of water if they are collected from a far area.

The alternative to seeds give people who want to establish a nursery an additional option of stocking the nursery. The alternatives are especially good if you want quick gains in your nursery. It takes time for most indigenous tree species in Africa to grow. However, you can establish a tree nursery pretty fast by collecting wildlings.

cuttings are one of the many alternatives to seed in a nursery
Cuttings for Allanblackia tree seedlings (Source: World Agroforestry Centre)

David Okul is a freelance writer, and a PhD student at a Kenyan university

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