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Payment for Ecosystem Services: Theoretical background

Davidokul — Sun, 31 Mar 2024 19:50:51 +0000

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

Payment for ecosystem services is a new conservation management paradigm that recognises that those enjoying the benefits of natural resources should directly pay the people conserving or protecting the resources.

I. Overview of the concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services.

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is a market-based mechanism aimed at incentivizing the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources by compensating individuals or communities for the valuable services provided by ecosystems. The concept recognizes that ecosystems offer a wide range of benefits, known as ecosystem services, such as clean water provision, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and soil erosion prevention, among others.

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) has emerged as a compelling approach to address the complex challenges of environmental degradation and sustainable development. As human activities continue to exert unprecedented pressure on the Earth’s ecosystems, the need for innovative conservation strategies has become increasingly urgent. In this context, PES offers a promising framework for incentivizing the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources by recognizing and valuing the services provided by ecosystems. The concept of ecosystem services, encompassing the myriad benefits that ecosystems provide to society, underscores the fundamental importance of conserving and restoring natural habitats. From clean water provision and climate regulation to pollination and cultural heritage, ecosystem services are essential for human well-being, economic prosperity, and ecological resilience. However, the degradation of ecosystems, driven by factors such as deforestation, habitat destruction, and pollution, threatens the delivery of these vital services. In response to these challenges, PES has emerged as a market-based mechanism that seeks to internalize the externalities associated with ecosystem services and align economic incentives with environmental goals. By compensating landowners and resource managers for the services provided by ecosystems, PES aims to promote conservation, restoration, and sustainable management practices. This approach not only helps to conserve biodiversity and protect critical habitats but also supports livelihoods, enhances resilience to climate change, and fosters social equity. The theoretical foundations of PES draw upon insights from economics, environmental science, and governance theory, highlighting the importance of property rights, market failures, and institutional arrangements in shaping human behavior and resource management outcomes. Implementation mechanisms of PES involve stakeholder engagement, payment structures, monitoring systems, and institutional integration to ensure transparency, accountability, and effectiveness. While PES holds promise as a tool for promoting environmental conservation and sustainable development, it also faces challenges related to additionality, equity, transaction costs, and social acceptance. Addressing these challenges requires adaptive management, stakeholder collaboration, and policy innovation to maximize the effectiveness and equity of PES initiatives.

II. Theoretical Foundations of PES

The theoretical foundations of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) are rooted in economic theory, environmental economics frameworks, and institutional economics perspectives. These theoretical underpinnings provide a conceptual basis for understanding the rationale behind PES and guiding its design and implementation. Here are key theoretical foundations of PES:

Market Failures and Externalities: PES addresses market failures related to the mismanagement of natural resources and the undervaluation of ecosystem services. Traditional markets often fail to account for the full social and environmental costs of resource use, leading to overexploitation and degradation of ecosystems. PES aims to internalize these externalities by creating financial incentives for the conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems.
Coase Theorem and Property Rights: The Coase theorem highlights the role of property rights in resolving externalities through negotiation and voluntary agreements. PES schemes rely on clear property rights and contractual arrangements between buyers and sellers of ecosystem services to internalize the external costs and benefits associated with ecosystem conservation.
Environmental Economics Frameworks: PES is supported by various environmental economics frameworks, including cost-benefit analysis, welfare economics, and market-based instruments. Cost-benefit analysis helps assess the economic efficiency of PES interventions by comparing the costs of conservation measures with the benefits derived from ecosystem services. Welfare economics provides insights into the distributional impacts of PES payments and the allocation of resources to maximize social welfare. Market-based instruments, such as cap-and-trade systems and environmental taxes, offer policy tools for implementing PES and incentivizing sustainable resource management.
Institutional Economics Perspectives: Institutional economics perspectives emphasize the importance of institutions, governance structures, and property rights arrangements in shaping human behavior and resource management outcomes. PES governance mechanisms, including property rights regimes, contracts, and payment schemes, play a critical role in defining the rules of the game and facilitating cooperation among stakeholders. Institutional economics also highlights the role of transaction costs, enforcement mechanisms, and social norms in shaping the effectiveness and sustainability of PES arrangements.

III. Implementation Mechanisms of PES

The implementation mechanisms of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) encompass a range of strategies and approaches designed to facilitate the exchange of ecosystem services between providers (sellers) and beneficiaries (buyers). These mechanisms involve various stakeholders, payment structures, and monitoring systems to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of PES schemes. Here are key components of the implementation mechanisms of PES:

Identification and Valuation of Ecosystem Services: The first step in implementing PES is identifying the ecosystem services to be targeted for conservation or restoration. This involves assessing the ecological functions and benefits provided by ecosystems, such as carbon sequestration, water purification, or habitat provision. Valuation methods, including market-based approaches, stated preference surveys, and cost-based methods, are used to quantify the economic value of ecosystem services and determine appropriate payment levels.
Stakeholder Engagement and Negotiation: PES schemes require the involvement of diverse stakeholders, including landowners, resource users, government agencies, NGOs, and private sector actors. Stakeholder engagement processes facilitate dialogue, negotiation, and consensus-building among stakeholders to define PES objectives, roles, responsibilities, and payment arrangements. Participatory approaches ensure that PES schemes reflect the interests and preferences of local communities and stakeholders.
Design of Payment Structures and Contracts: PES schemes involve the development of payment structures and contractual agreements that specify the terms and conditions of the PES transactions. Payment structures may include one-time payments, recurrent payments, or performance-based incentives, depending on the nature of the ecosystem service and the preferences of stakeholders. Contracts outline the rights and obligations of buyers and sellers, including the duration of the agreement, the scope of services provided, and the conditions for payment.
Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) Systems: Effective monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems are essential for ensuring transparency, accountability, and the integrity of PES transactions. MRV systems track the delivery of ecosystem services, assess the effectiveness of conservation measures, and verify compliance with contractual obligations. Monitoring techniques may include remote sensing, field surveys, and participatory monitoring approaches, while reporting mechanisms provide stakeholders with information on PES outcomes and impacts.

IV. Effectiveness and Challenges of PES

The effectiveness of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) initiatives in achieving their environmental and socio-economic objectives varies depending on various factors, including the design of the scheme, the context in which it operates, and the stakeholders involved. While PES holds promise as a tool for incentivizing conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems, it also faces several challenges that can hinder its success. Here, we explore both the effectiveness and challenges of PES:

Effectiveness:

Conservation Outcomes: PES schemes have demonstrated effectiveness in achieving targeted conservation outcomes, such as biodiversity conservation, habitat restoration, and watershed protection. By providing financial incentives to landowners and resource managers, PES encourages the adoption of land management practices that enhance ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation.
Economic Efficiency: PES can be economically efficient by internalizing the externalities associated with ecosystem services and aligning economic incentives with environmental goals. Cost-effectiveness analysis has shown that PES can be a cost-effective approach compared to alternative conservation strategies, particularly when considering the long-term benefits of ecosystem services.
Social Benefits: PES initiatives can generate social benefits by supporting rural livelihoods, empowering local communities, and fostering social cohesion. By providing financial incentives for conservation, PES schemes can contribute to poverty alleviation, income diversification, and improved access to ecosystem services for marginalized communities.
Innovation and Learning: PES has stimulated innovation in conservation finance, governance, and technology, leading to the development of new approaches and tools for ecosystem management. PES initiatives provide opportunities for learning and adaptive management, allowing stakeholders to experiment with different approaches and adapt to changing environmental and socio-economic conditions.

Challenges:

Additionality and Leakage: Ensuring additionality—the delivery of additional ecosystem services beyond what would have occurred without the PES intervention—and addressing leakage—the displacement of environmental impacts to other areas—are key challenges in PES implementation. Without proper safeguards and monitoring mechanisms, PES payments may incentivize activities that merely shift environmental degradation elsewhere rather than addressing the underlying drivers of ecosystem decline.
Equity and Distributional Impacts: PES schemes may exacerbate existing inequalities by disproportionately benefiting wealthy landowners or exacerbating land tenure conflicts. Ensuring equitable distribution of PES benefits among stakeholders, particularly marginalized groups and indigenous communities, remains a challenge. Moreover, PES may incentivize the exclusion of certain stakeholders or the privatization of common resources, leading to social tensions and conflicts.
Transaction Costs and Administrative Burdens: PES schemes often entail high transaction costs associated with designing, implementing, and monitoring agreements, particularly in complex socio-ecological contexts. Administrative burdens, including legal and bureaucratic requirements, can hinder the scalability and cost-effectiveness of PES initiatives, particularly for small-scale projects or in resource-constrained settings.
Market and Policy Uncertainties: PES initiatives are subject to market uncertainties, policy changes, and external shocks that can affect the stability and viability of the schemes. Fluctuations in ecosystem service values, changes in government priorities, and shifts in consumer preferences can undermine the financial sustainability of PES arrangements and discourage long-term investment in conservation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Payment for Ecosystem Services offers a promising pathway towards achieving environmental sustainability and fostering socio-economic development. By integrating ecological, economic, and social considerations, PES has the potential to catalyze transformative change and create a more sustainable and equitable future for people and the planet. However, realizing this potential requires concerted efforts from governments, civil society, the private sector, and local communities to overcome challenges and harness the full benefits of PES for present and future generations.

REFERENCES

The Positive Effects of Coronavirus on the Air Pollution Globally

May 24, 2020

The Environmental Benefits of the Coronavirus (COVID 19)

April 29, 2020

Nine Reasons why Plastics are regarded as the Bad Boys of Global Pollution

July 19, 2019

Ntangusa Moonyoi is a Bachelor of Commerce at Strathmore University Kenya.

The post Payment for Ecosystem Services: Theoretical background appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Environmental Externalities: Research Paper

Davidokul — Thu, 29 Feb 2024 17:16:11 +0000

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

Our production and consumption systems are causing externalities. In this paper, we discuss some of the pertinent concepts on environmental externalities.

INTRODUCTION

Brief overview of environmental externalities

Environmental externalities refer to the unintended and often unaccounted-for impacts that economic activities have on the environment, affecting parties not directly involved in those activities. These externalities can be positive or negative and encompass a wide range of environmental issues. The concept is rooted in market failures, as the costs or benefits associated with these external effects are not reflected in the prices of goods and services in the marketplace.

Key Characteristics:

Positive and Negative Externalities: Positive externalities result in beneficial effects on the environment, such as ecosystem restoration or biodiversity conservation. Negative externalities, on the other hand, lead to harmful consequences, including pollution, deforestation, and habitat destruction.
Scope of Impact: Environmental externalities can affect air, water, soil, biodiversity, and ecosystems. The scale of impact can range from local to global, with some externalities contributing to broader issues like climate change.
Market Failures: Traditional markets often fail to account for the environmental costs associated with production and As a result, economic agents may not fully consider the long-term consequences of their actions, leading to inefficient resource allocation.
Interconnectedness: Environmental externalities often manifest in interconnected and complex ways. For instance, air pollution can contribute to climate change, affecting weather patterns and ecosystems globally.

Examples of Environmental Externalities:

Air Pollution: Emissions from industries and vehicles contribute to air pollution, affecting human health, degrading air quality, and contributing to climate
Water Pollution: Agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and improper waste disposal can contaminate water sources, leading to aquatic ecosystem degradation and risks to human health.
Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture and logging can result in loss of biodiversity, disrupt ecosystems, and contribute to carbon emissions.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming and climate change.

Mitigation Strategies:

Regulation and Policy: Governments implement environmental regulations, such as emission standards and pollution controls, to address externalities and promote sustainable practices.
Economic Instruments: Taxes, subsidies, and cap-and-trade systems provide economic incentives for businesses and individuals to internalize environmental costs and adopt greener practices.
Technological Innovation: Advances in technology, such as renewable energy sources and eco-friendly production methods, play a crucial role in mitigating environmental

Importance of addressing environmental externalities

Addressing environmental externalities is of paramount importance for several reasons, reflecting the interconnectedness between human activities, the economy, and the health of the planet. The significance of addressing environmental externalities can be understood through the following key points:

Ecosystem Health and Biodiversity:

Preservation of Ecosystems: Environmental externalities often contribute to habitat destruction, deforestation, and pollution, leading to the degradation of ecosystems. Addressing externalities is crucial for preserving biodiversity and maintaining the health of natural systems.

Human Health and Well-being:

Air and Water Quality: Pollution resulting from environmental externalities, such as air and water pollution, directly impacts human health. Addressing these externalities is essential for ensuring clean air and water, reducing the prevalence of respiratory diseases and waterborne illnesses.

Long-term Economic Sustainability:

Resource Conservation: Many environmental externalities involve the inefficient use of natural resources. Addressing these externalities promotes sustainable resource management, ensuring the availability of essential resources for future generations.

Climate Change Mitigation:

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Environmental externalities, particularly those related to the burning of fossil fuels, contribute significantly to climate change. Addressing these externalities is critical for mitigating global warming and its associated impacts, such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and disruptions to ecosystems.

Social Equity and Justice:

Disproportionate Impact: Environmental externalities often impact marginalized communities and vulnerable populations more severely. Addressing externalities is essential for promoting environmental justice and ensuring that the burdens and benefits of environmental actions are equitably distributed.

Regulatory Compliance and Legal Frameworks:

Ensuring Compliance: Addressing environmental externalities is essential for complying with environmental regulations and legal frameworks. Businesses and individuals must internalize the costs associated with their activities to avoid legal repercussions and contribute to a sustainable future.

Innovation and Technological Advancement:

Stimulating Green Technologies: The need to address environmental externalities drives innovation in green technologies and sustainable practices. This, in turn, fosters economic growth, job creation, and the development of industries focused on environmental sustainability.

Global Cooperation and Diplomacy:

International Collaboration: Many environmental challenges, such as air and water pollution or climate change, require global cooperation. Addressing environmental externalities fosters international collaboration and diplomatic efforts to find collective solutions to shared environmental problems.

Public Awareness and Education:

Informed Decision-Making: Addressing environmental externalities involves raising public awareness and promoting environmental education. Informed individuals are more likely to make sustainable choices and support policies that contribute to environmental well-being.

Thesis statement outlining the scope and purpose of the paper.

This research paper seeks to comprehensively explore the concept of environmental externalities, investigating their diverse manifestations, economic implications, and the imperative of addressing them. Through an examination of case studies, economic analyses, and policy responses, the paper aims to underscore the significance of mitigating environmental externalities for the preservation of ecosystems, human health, economic sustainability, and the collective well-being of current and future generations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition and classification of environmental externalities

Environmental externalities refer to the unintended side effects or consequences of human activities on the environment, affecting parties not directly involved in those activities. These externalities can be either positive or negative and arise when the costs or benefits of an action are not fully borne by the individuals or businesses responsible for that action. In other words, environmental externalities represent the spillover effects of economic activities on the broader ecosystem, often leading to outcomes that are not accounted for in market transactions.

Classification of Environmental Externalities:

Positive Externalities:

Definition: Positive environmental externalities occur when the benefits of an economic activity extend beyond the individuals or entities directly involved.

Example: Planting trees not only benefits the individual or organization planting them but also improves air quality and provides habitat for wildlife, creating positive externalities.

Negative Externalities:

Definition: Negative environmental externalities occur when the costs of an economic activity are borne by parties not directly engaged in that activity.

Example: Industrial pollution affecting nearby communities or water contamination from agricultural runoff are instances of negative externalities.

Air Pollution:

Definition: Activities such as industrial production and transportation release pollutants into the air, affecting air quality and human health.

Example: Emission of particulate matter and gases from factories leading to respiratory problems in neighboring communities.

Water Pollution:

Definition: The contamination of water bodies by pollutants from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, or improper waste disposal.

Example: Discharge of chemicals from a factory into a nearby river, impacting aquatic life and potentially affecting downstream communities.

Deforestation:

Definition: The clearing of forests, often for agriculture or logging, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems.

Example: Clear-cutting of forests for timber or to make way for agricultural activities, leading to habitat destruction and soil erosion.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

Definition: The release of gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, contributing to global warming and climate change.

Example: Burning fossil fuels for energy, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and contributing to the greenhouse effect.

Historical context and evolution of the concept

The concept of externalities, including environmental externalities, has roots in economic thought and policy discussions dating back to the 19th century. Over time, the understanding of how economic activities impact the environment and society has evolved. Here is a simplified overview of the historical context and evolution:

Classical Economics (18th-19th centuries):

Adam Smith (1776) and David Ricardo (1817) do not explicitly address environmental concerns in relation to public goods provision. One plausible explanation is that, during that time, industrialization and urbanization had not advanced to a stage where intellectuals acknowledged the significant impact on the environment. Additionally, environmental matters were not yet considered within the scope of topics that economists were anticipated to scrutinize as part of social development.

During the classical economic era, thinkers like Adam Smith and David Ricardo focused on individual self-interest and the idea that markets, if left to operate freely, would lead to optimal outcomes. However, their theories did not explicitly address the unintended consequences of economic activities on the broader society or the environment.

Pigouvian Economics (20th century):

In the early 20th century, economist Arthur Pigou introduced the concept of externalities to address market failures. He argued that when the actions of individuals or businesses impose costs or benefits on others not involved in the market transaction, markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently. Pigou proposed government intervention through taxes or subsidies to internalize externalities.

Tragedy of the Commons (1968):

Garrett Hardin’s influential essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” highlighted the overuse and degradation of shared resources when individuals act in their self-interest. Hardin’s work underscored the need for collective action and regulation to address environmental challenges.

Coase Theorem (1960):

Ronald Coase proposed the Coase Theorem, suggesting that if property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, private parties can negotiate and find efficient solutions to externalities without government intervention. This theorem contributed to the understanding of how markets and property rights influence environmental outcomes.

Environmental Movement (Late 20th century):

The rise of the environmental movement in the mid-20th century drew attention to pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem degradation. Increased public awareness and advocacy led to the establishment of environmental regulations and agencies in many countries.

Sustainable Development (1980s-present):

The concept of sustainable development gained prominence in the 1980s, emphasizing the need to balance economic growth with environmental protection and social equity. International agreements, such as the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, highlighted the interconnectedness of economic, social, and environmental goals.

Integration into Economic Models (Modern era):

Environmental externalities are now integrated into economic models, policy discussions, and sustainability frameworks. Concepts like the triple bottom line (considering economic, social, and environmental factors) emphasize a more holistic approach to decision-making.

Throughout this historical evolution, the concept of environmental externalities has transitioned from a niche economic idea to a central theme in discussions about sustainable development and responsible resource management. The ongoing challenges related to climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution continue to underscore the importance of addressing environmental externalities in contemporary policy and decision-making.

Key studies and research on environmental externalities

Several key studies and research efforts have significantly contributed to our understanding of environmental externalities. These studies have explored the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of externalities, providing valuable insights into their causes, consequences, and potential mitigation strategies. Here are a few notable examples:

“The Economics of Welfare” by Arthur Pigou (1920):

Arthur Pigou’s work laid the foundation for the concept of externalities. In “The Economics of Welfare,” Pigou introduced the idea that when the actions of individuals or businesses impose costs or benefits on others, markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently. He proposed government intervention to address these externalities, a concept now known as the Pigovian tax.

“The Tragedy of the Commons” by Garrett Hardin (1968):

Garrett Hardin’s influential essay discussed the overuse and depletion of common resources, highlighting the concept of the tragedy of the commons. Hardin argued that individuals acting in their self-interest could lead to the degradation of shared resources, emphasizing the need for collective action and regulation.

Coase Theorem by Ronald Coase (1960):

Ronald Coase’s paper “The Problem of Social Cost” introduced the Coase Theorem, challenging the traditional view that externalities required government intervention. Coase argued that, under certain conditions, private parties could negotiate and find efficient solutions to externalities without government involvement.

“Pollution, Prices, and Public Policy” by Thomas Crocker (1966):

Thomas Crocker’s paper is a seminal work in the development of emissions trading systems. Crocker discussed how creating a market for pollution permits could provide an economically efficient solution to environmental externalities associated with pollution.

“The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change” (2006):

The Stern Review, led by economist Sir Nicholas Stern, examined the economic impacts of climate change. The report emphasized the importance of considering the external costs of carbon emissions and highlighted the economic rationale for taking action to mitigate climate change.

“The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)” (2008):

TEEB is a comprehensive study initiated by the United Nations that assesses the economic value of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The report emphasizes the often-unaccounted- for economic benefits provided by nature and highlights the externalities associated with biodiversity loss.

“The Dasgupta Review: The Economics of Biodiversity” (2021):

Commissioned by the UK government, the Dasgupta Review explores the economic implications of biodiversity loss. Authored by Sir Partha Dasgupta, the report emphasizes the need to incorporate nature’s value into economic decision-making and addresses the externalities arising from the neglect of biodiversity.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Air pollution: Sources, impacts, and mitigation strategies

Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances, such as particulate matter, gases, and chemicals, in the Earth’s atmosphere in concentrations that can be detrimental to human health, the environment, and overall well-being.

Sources of Air Pollution:

Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy production releases pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate
Vehicle Emissions: Combustion engines emit pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and particulate matter.
Industrial Activities: Factories and industrial processes release pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).
Agricultural Practices: Agricultural activities contribute to air pollution through ammonia (NH3) emissions and the release of agricultural dust.

Waste Management: Improper disposal and treatment of waste can result in the release of pollutants into the air.
1. Impacts of Air Pollution:
Health Effects: Air pollution can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, exacerbate existing conditions, and cause premature deaths.
Environmental Degradation: Pollutants can harm ecosystems, soil quality, and water bodies, impacting biodiversity and the health of plants and animals.
Climate Change: Greenhouse gas emissions from air pollution contribute to global warming, affecting weather patterns and ecosystems.
Ozone Depletion: Certain pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer, leading to increased UV radiation reaching the Earth’s
1. Mitigation Strategies:
Transition to Clean Energy: Encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, reduces reliance on fossil fuels and decreases air pollution.
Improved Transportation: Promoting public transportation, electric vehicles, and sustainable urban planning can reduce vehicle emissions.
Stringent Emission Standards: Implementing and enforcing strict emission standards for industries and vehicles helps limit the release of harmful pollutants.
Afforestation and Green Spaces: Planting trees and creating green spaces can help absorb pollutants and improve air quality.
Waste Management Practices: Proper waste disposal and recycling reduce the release of pollutants from landfills and incineration.
Regulatory Measures: Governments can enact and enforce air quality regulations to limit emissions from various sources and protect public health.
Public Awareness and Education: Informing the public about the sources and impacts of air pollution encourages responsible behavior and supports community-driven efforts to improve air quality.
Technological Innovation: Investing in and adopting cleaner technologies, such as emission control devices and pollution abatement technologies, can contribute to reducing air pollution.

Water pollution: Causes, consequences, and regulatory measures

Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and other aquatic systems, by the introduction of harmful substances or pollutants.

Causes of Water Pollution:
- Industrial Discharges: Factories and industrial facilities often release pollutants, including heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins, into water bodies.
- Agricultural Runoff: The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture can lead to runoff, carrying pollutants such as nutrients and chemicals into rivers and lakes.
- Wastewater Disposal: Improper disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater can introduce pollutants, including pathogens and chemicals, into water systems.
- Oil Spills: Accidental or intentional releases of oil into water bodies can have severe environmental consequences, affecting aquatic life and ecosystems.
- Plastic Pollution: Improper disposal and accumulation of plastic waste in water bodies pose a significant threat to marine life and ecosystems.
- Urbanization and Stormwater Runoff: Increased urban development leads to increased impervious surfaces, causing stormwater runoff to carry pollutants into water bodies.
Consequences of Water Pollution:
- Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems: Water pollution can harm fish, plants, and other aquatic organisms, disrupting ecosystems and reducing biodiversity.
- Health Risks: Contaminated water can pose risks to human health, leading to waterborne diseases and long-term health issues.
- Economic Impact: Water pollution can negatively impact industries such as fisheries and tourism, affecting local economies.
- Drinking Water Contamination: Polluted water sources can compromise the quality of drinking water, endangering public health.
- Loss of Recreational Opportunities: Polluted water bodies may become unsuitable for recreational activities, impacting the quality of life for nearby communities.
Regulatory Measures to Address Water Pollution:
- Water Quality Standards: Governments set water quality standards that define acceptable pollutant levels in water These standards serve as benchmarks for monitoring and regulatory compliance.
- Pollution Prevention Plans: Industries may be required to implement pollution prevention plans to reduce the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.

Wastewater Treatment: Establishing and enforcing regulations on the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater helps reduce pollutant levels before
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): Before initiating projects, authorities may require EIAs to assess potential impacts on water quality and ecosystems, ensuring sustainable development.
Erosion Control Measures: Implementing erosion control measures, such as vegetative buffers and sediment control structures, helps prevent soil runoff and reduces sedimentation in water bodies.
Bans and Restrictions: Prohibiting or restricting the use of certain pollutants, such as specific chemicals or materials, helps prevent their introduction into water systems.
Community Engagement and Education: Raising awareness and involving local communities in water protection efforts fosters a sense of responsibility and encourages sustainable practices.

Deforestation: Economic drivers, ecological consequences, and conservation efforts

Economic Drivers of Deforestation:
- Agriculture: Expansion of agricultural activities, especially for cash crops and livestock, is a significant driver of Large-scale farming often leads to the clearing of vast forested areas.
- Logging and Timber Production: The demand for wood and timber products contributes to deforestation, as logging operations clear forests for commercial purposes.
- Infrastructure Development: Road construction, urbanization, and other infrastructure projects can result in deforestation as forests are cleared to make way for roads, buildings, and other developments.
- Mining: Extractive industries, such as mining for minerals and oil, often require clearing large areas of forests, leading to deforestation.
- Fuelwood Collection: In many developing regions, reliance on wood for fuel contributes to deforestation as communities harvest trees for cooking and heating purposes.
Ecological Consequences of Deforestation:
- Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation leads to the destruction of habitats, resulting in the loss of plant and animal species. Many species may become endangered or extinct.
- Disruption of Ecosystems: Forest ecosystems are complex and interconnected. Deforestation disrupts these systems, affecting nutrient cycles, water flow, and ecological
- Climate Change: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide. Deforestation releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate

Soil Erosion: The removal of trees exposes soil to erosion. Without the stabilizing influence of tree roots, erosion can lead to degraded soil quality and reduced agricultural
Disruption of Water Cycles: Forests play a crucial role in regulating water cycles. Deforestation can alter precipitation patterns, leading to changes in local and regional

Conservation Efforts:
- Protected Areas and Reserves: Establishing and effectively managing protected areas and reserves helps preserve critical ecosystems and biodiversity.
- Reforestation and Afforestation: Planting trees in deforested areas (reforestation) or areas that were not previously forested (afforestation) helps restore ecosystems and mitigate the impacts of deforestation.
- Sustainable Logging Practices: Implementing sustainable logging practices, such as selective logging and reduced-impact logging, can minimize the ecological impact of timber production.
- Community-Based Conservation: Involving local communities in conservation efforts helps build support for protecting forests and ensures that conservation measures are
- Corporate Responsibility: Encouraging responsible business practices, such as sustainable sourcing of timber and agricultural products, promotes conservation and reduces the economic drivers of deforestation.
- Policy and Legislation: Governments can enact and enforce laws that regulate land use, logging, and agricultural practices to prevent deforestation.
- International Collaboration: Global initiatives and partnerships between countries, NGOs, and businesses are crucial for addressing deforestation, especially in regions with high biodiversity and extensive forest cover.

Greenhouse gas emissions: Trends, consequences, and the role of renewable energy

Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Global Increase: Over the past century, human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
- Dominant Sources: The primary sources of GHG emissions include the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy, deforestation, agricultural practices, and certain industrial

Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is the most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted by human activities, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels and land-use changes.
Methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Agriculture, livestock, and industrial activities contribute to elevated levels of methane and nitrous oxide emissions, both potent greenhouse gases.

Consequences of Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Climate Change: The increased concentration of greenhouse gases traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to global warming and alterations in climate patterns.
- Rising Sea Levels: Melting ice caps and glaciers, primarily caused by higher temperatures, contributes to rising sea levels, posing risks to coastal communities and
- Extreme Weather Events: Changes in climate patterns result in more frequent and severe weather events, including hurricanes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves.
- Impact on Ecosystems: Altered temperatures and precipitation patterns can disrupt ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, migration patterns, and the health of various
- Ocean Acidification: The absorption of excess CO2 by oceans leads to increased acidity, negatively impacting marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells.
Role of Renewable Energy in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Decarbonization of Energy: Transitioning from fossil fuel-based energy sources to renewable energy, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, reduces reliance on carbon-intensive fuels, lowering emissions.
- Solar Energy: Solar power harnesses sunlight to generate electricity, offering a clean and abundant energy source with minimal environmental impact.
- Wind Energy: Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity, providing a sustainable alternative to fossil fuel-based power generation.
- Hydropower: Generating electricity from moving water helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the environmental impact of traditional energy sources.
- Geothermal Energy: Utilizing heat from the Earth’s interior for power generation offers a continuous and low-emission energy source.
- Bioenergy: Biomass and biofuels derived from organic materials can serve as renewable alternatives to traditional fossil fuels.

Renewable Energy Advantages in Emission Reduction:

Reduced Carbon Footprint: Renewable energy sources produce little to no direct greenhouse gas emissions during operation, helping to mitigate climate change.

Energy Independence: Utilizing renewable energy reduces dependence on finite fossil fuel resources, promoting energy security.
Job Creation: The renewable energy sector supports job creation and economic growth, fostering a transition to a more sustainable and resilient economy.

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Market failures and the role of externalities

Understanding Market Failures:

Market failures occur when the allocation of goods and services by a free market is inefficient, leading to outcomes that do not maximize societal welfare. In a perfectly competitive market, prices reflect both the private costs and benefits of production and consumption. However, market failures arise when certain conditions are not met, resulting in misallocations of resources.

Causes of Market Failures:

Externalities: The presence of externalities, where the actions of producers or consumers impose costs or benefits on third parties not involved in the transaction.

Public Goods: Goods that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning individuals cannot be excluded from consuming them, and one person’s consumption does not diminish the availability to others.

Imperfect Competition: Monopolies, oligopolies, or monopolistic competition can lead to market power and inefficient outcomes.

Information Asymmetry: When one party in a transaction has more information than the other, leading to adverse selection or moral hazard.

Incomplete Markets: When certain goods or services are not traded in the market, leading to underproduction or overproduction.

Role of Externalities in Market Failures:

Externalities play a significant role in causing market failures. Externalities occur when the production or consumption of goods and services affect third parties who are not part of the market transaction. They can be positive, such as the benefits of education spillovers, or negative, such as pollution from industrial production.

Types of Externalities:

Negative Externalities: These occur when the actions of producers or consumers impose costs on third parties not involved in the transaction. For example, pollution from factories negatively impacts the health of nearby residents.

Positive Externalities: Positive externalities occur when the actions of producers or consumers create benefits for third parties. For instance, investments in education not only benefit the individual but also society through increased productivity and innovation.

Consequences of Externalities:

Externalities can lead to inefficient resource allocation, as market prices do not fully account for the external costs or benefits associated with production or consumption. Negative externalities can result in overproduction of goods with harmful effects, while positive externalities may lead to underinvestment in beneficial activities.

Addressing Externalities:

To address externalities and mitigate market failures, policymakers can employ various interventions, including:

Pigouvian Taxes: Taxes levied on producers or consumers to internalize the external costs associated with their actions.

Subsidies: Government subsidies provided to encourage activities that generate positive externalities.

Regulations: Imposing regulations or standards to limit or mitigate the negative impacts of externalities.

Cap-and-Trade Systems: Market-based mechanisms that set a cap on total emissions and allow for trading of emission permits.

Importance of Addressing Externalities:

Addressing externalities is crucial for achieving efficient resource allocation, promoting social welfare, and ensuring environmental sustainability. By internalizing external costs and benefits, policymakers can align private incentives with societal goals, leading to more efficient and equitable outcomes in the market. Failure to address externalities can result in market distortions, environmental degradation, and negative impacts on human health and well-being.

Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and Coase theorem

1. Pigouvian Taxation:

Definition: Pigouvian taxation, named after economist Arthur Pigou, involves levying taxes on activities that generate negative externalities to internalize the external costs.

Mechanism: The tax is imposed on producers or consumers to align private costs with social costs, thereby reducing the quantity of the harmful activity to the socially optimal level.

Rationale: In the presence of negative externalities, market prices do not fully reflect the true costs of production or consumption, leading to overproduction or overconsumption of the harmful good or service. By imposing a tax equal to the external cost per unit, the government internalizes the externality and incentivizes producers or consumers to account for the social costs in their decision-making.

Example: Carbon taxes are a common application of Pigouvian taxation, where a tax is levied on the carbon content of fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.

2. Coase Theorem:

Definition: The Coase theorem, formulated by economist Ronald Coase, suggests that in the absence of transaction costs and under certain conditions, parties can negotiate and arrive at efficient solutions to externalities privately, without government intervention.

Mechanism: According to the Coase theorem, if property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, parties affected by externalities can bargain with one another to reach mutually beneficial agreements. The efficient outcome is independent of the initial allocation of property rights.

Rationale: The Coase theorem challenges the conventional view that externalities always require government intervention to correct. Instead, it highlights the potential for private bargaining and voluntary agreements to internalize externalities efficiently.

Example: In the case of pollution, if property rights are clearly defined and transaction costs are low, affected parties (e.g., polluters and affected communities) can negotiate compensation or mitigation measures to address the externality without government intervention.

Comparison:

Pigouvian Taxation vs. Coase Theorem: While Pigouvian taxation relies on government intervention to internalize externalities through taxes, the Coase theorem suggests that private bargaining can achieve the same outcome under certain conditions. Pigouvian taxation is often favored when transaction costs are high or property rights are difficult to define, whereas the Coase theorem may be applicable in situations where private negotiations are feasible and efficient.

Conclusion:

Both Pigouvian taxation and the Coase theorem offer theoretical frameworks for addressing externalities and achieving efficient outcomes in the presence of market failures. While Pigouvian taxation provides a straightforward mechanism for internalizing external costs through government intervention, the Coase theorem highlights the potential for private bargaining and voluntary agreements to address externalities efficiently. Ultimately, the choice between these approaches depends on the specific context, including the nature of the externality, transaction costs, and the feasibility of private negotiations.

Challenges in valuing environmental goods and services

Non-Market Nature: Many environmental goods and services, such as clean air, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, do not have explicit market prices. In the absence of market transactions, valuing these goods and services becomes challenging, as there is no direct monetary exchange to determine their worth.

Complexity and Interconnectedness: Environmental systems are complex and interconnected, with numerous variables and feedback loops. Valuing individual environmental goods or services in isolation may overlook their broader ecological context and the interactions between different components of the environment.

Temporal and Spatial Variability: Environmental goods and services often exhibit temporal and spatial variability, making their valuation more complex. Valuation methods must account for fluctuations in ecosystem conditions over time and differences in environmental attributes across geographic regions.

Subjectivity and Uncertainty: Valuing environmental goods and services involves subjective judgments and value assessments. Different stakeholders may have varying preferences, perceptions, and priorities regarding the value of environmental resources, leading to disagreements and conflicts. Uncertainty surrounding future environmental conditions, ecological dynamics, and human behaviors further complicates valuation efforts.

Methodological Challenges: Existing valuation methods, such as contingent valuation, hedonic pricing, and ecosystem services valuation, have limitations and assumptions that can affect the accuracy and reliability of estimates. Methodological choices, including study design, sample selection, and model specification, can influence valuation outcomes and interpretations.

Distributional Considerations: Valuing environmental goods and services raises distributional issues, as benefits and costs may accrue unevenly across different groups within society.

Ensuring equitable distribution of environmental benefits and addressing environmental justice concerns requires careful consideration in valuation studies. Externalities and Spillover Effects: Environmental goods and services often exhibit spillover effects, where the benefits or costs extend beyond the immediate users or beneficiaries. Valuation efforts must account for these externalities and spillover effects to capture the full social value of environmental resources.

Inadequate Data and Information: Limited availability of data and information on environmental attributes, ecosystem functions, and human preferences can hinder valuation efforts. Improving data collection, monitoring systems, and research infrastructure is essential for enhancing the accuracy and reliability of environmental valuation.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Emerging trends in environmental policy and technology

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:

Increasing focus on ambitious climate targets, including net-zero emissions and climate resilience strategies. Emphasis on renewable energy deployment, energy efficiency, and low- carbon technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Integration of climate considerations into all aspects of policymaking, from transportation and agriculture to urban planning and infrastructure development.

Circular Economy and Waste Management:

Shift towards circular economy models aimed at minimizing waste generation and maximizing resource efficiency. Promotion of recycling, reuse, and extended producer responsibility to reduce environmental impacts and conserve resources. Exploration of innovative technologies, such as advanced recycling methods and material recovery, to create closed-loop systems.

Biodiversity Conservation and Restoration:

Recognition of the importance of biodiversity for ecosystem health, resilience, and human well- being. Implementation of biodiversity conservation measures, including protected areas, habitat restoration, and species recovery programs. Integration of biodiversity considerations into land- use planning, agricultural practices, and natural resource management.

Technology and Innovation:

Harnessing technology and innovation to drive sustainable development and address environmental challenges. Advances in renewable energy, clean transportation, and smart infrastructure to reduce environmental footprints and enhance efficiency. Integration of digital tools, data analytics, and remote sensing technologies to monitor environmental changes, improve decision-making, and enhance environmental governance.

Recommendations for policymakers, businesses, and individuals/civil society.

Addressing environmental challenges requires proactive measures and collaborative efforts from policymakers, businesses, and civil society. By adopting holistic approaches to environmental management, embracing sustainability principles, and working together towards common goals, we can create a more resilient and sustainable future for all.

Policymakers: Implement robust environmental regulations that internalize externalities and incentivize sustainable practices. Adopt a holistic approach to environmental management, considering the interconnectedness of ecosystems, social systems, and economic activities. Promote stakeholder engagement and participatory decision-making processes to ensure diverse perspectives are considered in policy Invest in research and innovation to support the development and implementation of effective environmental policies and technologies. Prioritize collaboration and international cooperation to address global environmental challenges and achieve collective goals.

Businesses: Integrate sustainability into corporate strategies, operations, and supply chains, considering environmental impacts throughout the product lifecycle. Implement environmental management systems and set measurable targets for reducing emissions, waste, and resource Invest in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and green technologies to reduce environmental footprints and enhance competitiveness. Engage with stakeholders, including customers, employees, and communities, to build trust and support for sustainability initiatives. Embrace transparency and accountability in reporting environmental performance, adhering to global standards and best practices.
Civil Society: Advocate for strong environmental policies and regulations that prioritize the protection of natural resources and public health. Raise awareness and mobilize public support for sustainable practices, conservation efforts, and climate Hold governments and businesses accountable for their environmental commitments through activism, public campaigns, and legal action if necessary. Foster collaboration and partnerships between civil society organizations, academia, and other stakeholders to leverage collective expertise and resources. Support grassroots initiatives and community-led projects that promote environmental stewardship and resilience at the local level.

CONCLUSION

Summary of key findings

Environmental externalities are unintended consequences of economic activities that affect ecosystems, human health, and quality of life. They can be positive (beneficial) or negative (harmful), with examples including pollution, habitat destruction, and ecosystem services.

Environmental externalities lead to market failures, as the costs or benefits of actions are not fully accounted for in market transactions. Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and the Coase theorem offer insights into addressing externalities through taxes, subsidies, and property rights.

Negative externalities have significant consequences on ecosystems, public health, and economic well-being, resulting in social burdens and economic costs. Case studies illustrate the real-world effects of externalities, including air pollution, deforestation, and water contamination.

Political barriers, vested interests, and uncertainty in valuing environmental goods pose challenges to implementing effective policy measures. Distributional impacts and equity considerations require careful attention to ensure fairness and social justice in environmental policymaking.

Regulatory measures, including pollution taxes and emissions standards, play a crucial role in internalizing externalities and promoting sustainable practices. Market-based instruments, such as cap-and-trade systems and subsidies for green technologies, offer innovative solutions to incentivize environmental stewardship. International cooperation and agreements are essential for addressing global environmental challenges and fostering collective action.

Individuals, communities, businesses, and governments are called upon to raise awareness, adopt sustainable practices, advocate for policy change, and promote corporate responsibility.

Collaboration and proactive measures are emphasized as essential for addressing environmental externalities and building a more resilient and sustainable future.

Call to action for sustainable practices and policies.

Environmental externalities pose significant threats to ecosystems, public health, and economic prosperity. To safeguard our planet and ensure a sustainable future, urgent action is needed at all levels of society. Here’s a call to action outlining steps that individuals, communities, businesses, and governments can take to address environmental externalities.

Raise Awareness: Educate yourself and others about environmental externalities, their impacts, and the importance of addressing Use social media, community events, and educational programs to raise awareness and mobilize support for environmental protection.
Adopt Sustainable Practices: Reduce your carbon footprint by conserving energy, using public transportation, and embracing renewable energy sources. Practice sustainable consumption habits, such as reducing waste, recycling, and supporting eco-friendly products and businesses.

Advocate for Policy Change: Engage with policymakers and advocate for stronger environmental regulations, including emissions standards, pollution taxes, and conservation Join or support environmental organizations and initiatives that promote sustainable policies and advocate for the protection of natural resources.

Promote Corporate Responsibility: Encourage businesses to adopt sustainable practices, reduce emissions, and invest in renewable energy technologies. Support companies that prioritize environmental stewardship and transparency in their operations.
Invest in Innovation: Invest in research and development of clean technologies, renewable energy solutions, and sustainable agricultural Support innovation hubs, startups, and initiatives focused on addressing environmental challenges and promoting green entrepreneurship.
Foster International Cooperation: Advocate for international agreements and partnerships to address global environmental issues, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and ocean conservation. Support efforts to aid and resources to developing countries for implementing sustainable development initiatives.

Hold Decision-Makers Accountable: Hold elected officials and policymakers accountable for their environmental commitments and ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into decision-making processes. Vote for candidates who prioritize environmental protection and advocate for policies that address environmental
Engage in Community Action: Participate in local environmental initiatives, such as tree planting, beach cleanups, and community gardens. Work with neighbors, community organizations, and local governments to address environmental challenges and promote sustainability at the grassroots level.

REFERENCES

Baumol and Oates (Reference Baumol and Oates1988).

“Environmental Economics: Theory, Application, and Policy” by Barry C. Field and Martha K. Field (Pearson, 2014)

Aunan K. (1996). “Exposure-Response Functions for Health Effects of Air Pollutants Based on Epidemiological Findings.” Risk Analysis 16(5): 693-709.

Richard B. Stewart. Controlling environmental risks through economic incentives.

https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ccrVAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA85&dq=Bri ef+overview+of+environmental+externalities&ots=up8iSpm6Ef&sig=cpWXlqbQXLy6WVF3g LvMZ_Jr6YA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Brief%20overview%20of%20environmental%20ext ernalities&f=false

Dascalu, C., Caraiani, C., Iuliana Lungu, C., Colceag, F. and Raluca Guse, G. (2010), “The externalities in social environmental accounting”, International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1108/18347641011023252

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Ntangusa Moonyoi is a Bachelor of Commerce at Strathmore University Kenya.

The post Environmental Externalities: Research Paper appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Sources, effects and how to prevent marine pollution

Davidokul — Mon, 01 Jun 2020 11:58:28 +0000

By David Okul

The marine environment is vulnerable to pollution from various human-made sources. A staggering 80% of all the pollution in the marine ecosystems originates from land. Shipping accidents and oil spills make up the rest of the contamination. In general, the sources of marine pollution include:

Nutrients– nutrients from sewage, farming, and forestry runoff are the leading contributors to marine pollution. Nutrients are also prevalent in nitrogen oxides from automobiles and power plants. They pollute the marine environment by feeding algal blooms present in coastal waters. Nutrients further play a role in decomposing algae, consequently robbing the water of oxygen and eventually killing marine life. Nutrients spur red tides, producing toxins responsible for poisoning people, and killing fish.
Sediments– sediments are a result of erosion from farming, mining, forestry, and coastal dredging. They pollute the marine environment by clouding water hence hindering photosynthesis below the surface waters.
Pathogens– the primary source of pathogens include livestock and sewage. Pathogens contaminate ocean waters and seafood, further spreading typhoid, cholera, and other diseases.
Plastics– millions of plastics in oceans contribute heavily to marine pollution. The main source of plastics in the marine environment include fishing nets, beach litter, and wastes from the plastic industry. Plastic litter coasts and beaches and they can remain in the ocean water for hundreds of years. Plastic debris is known to entangle marine life, causing deaths and severe injuries. Plastic causes about 60-90% of all pollution in aquatic ecosystems.
Radioactive substances– these substances come from military waste and a discarded nuclear submarine. They can further originate from industrial wastes and atmospheric fallout.
Oil–Oil from cars, industries, oil tankers, and heavy machinery accounts for 33% of marine pollution. Oil contamination in the oceans can kill marine life. Tar and other petroleum by-products litter coastal habitats and beaches.
Noise– Noise from large water vessels such as supertankers also pollutes the marine environment a great deal. Loud noise can be heard miles away underwater. Noise suppresses marine life. It even scares away fish and various types of marine life.

In summary, marine pollution is either caused by trash or chemicals. Of importance is to appreciate the role of plastics in marine pollution. As a significant pollutant, plastics also disintegrate into microplastic, which is consumed by organisms in the oceans. Scientists have not identified with certainty the effects of microplastics.

Effects of marine pollution

The overabundance of marine pollution has adverse consequences. Below are the major implications of marine pollution.

Kills marine life and jeopardizes human health– pollution leaves debris in the water. The waste is hazardous and chemically harmful. They can kill a wide array of marine life. Courtesy of marine pollution discarded broken glass, plastic and metal cans can harm fish and humans. Trash litters beaches alongside coastal areas, hence affecting human life. When in large quantities, debris can hinder ships from navigating.
Pollutants in the food chain- fish and other water creatures can consume pollutants, including chemicals, heavy metals, and garbage. Since humans consume these animals, the pollutants in them can quickly get to the food chain, finally accumulating in various seafood consumed by humans. Marine pollution contaminates shellfish and mussels that the seafood industry relies on.
Source of ailments– marine pollution exposes humans who come into contact with contaminated water to several illnesses. For instance, a reproductive system failure can occur from prolonged exposure to toxic agricultural and industrial chemicals. Pollutants in ocean waters can expose humans to eye and skin irritation. Moreover, liver and lung problems can develop following exposure to oil by-products and oil spillages in the oceans.
Disrupts the aquatic environment– the excess phosphorous and nitrogen resulting from widespread water pollution can lead to algal blooms. This disruption affects the ecosystem since algae overrun the ecosystem over time. Once alga blooms start to decompose and sink, the ocean waters’ oxygen levels can deplete drastically. This creates dead zones since marine life is unable to thrive in that hostile aquatic environment. Eventually, the disruption caused scares away fish and other marine species, prompting them to leave. Other fish species die if they are unable to flee.

How can we prevent marine pollution?

As detrimental as marine pollution is to the environment, this pollution can be prevented. Below are actionable ways of preventing marine pollution.

Embracing biodegradable plastic options

Plastics have various adverse effects on the environment and are leading contributors to marine pollution. Plastic containers that we utilize on an everyday basis are non-recyclable. They end up in waterways, eventually getting into the oceans.

We should switch to biodegradable plastic options. Such options aren’t hazardous to the environment, and they decompose rather quickly. As such, the chances of biodegradable containers getting to the oceans are minimal.

Managing ballast water effectively.

Ballast water helps with maintaining the ship’s stability and maneuverability as it navigates in oceans. This water hosts sea animals, and hence it has implications on the aquatic ecosystems once discharged.

The environmental pollution caused by ballast water can be dealt with effectively by the maritime authority. For instance, maritime companies can switch to huge containerships since they use a smaller volume of ballast water. Again, ships can use blast water that contains fewer creatures.

Installing tight air seals in ships

Oil spillages are prevalent in the oceans. They kill many fish spices each year. To prevent such disastrous spillages that jeopardize the marine environment, ships should have tight air seals to prevent accidental spillages.

Taking part in beach clean-ups

Trash is detrimental to the marine environment since it litters beaches and further contaminates ocean waters. Eliminating trash is an excellent precaution measure to counter marine pollution. Since rubbish will forever find its way to the marine environment, the public should be encouraged to take part in regular beach clean-ups.

Reducing rubbish and recycling

We should reduce our quantities of rubbish. These actions significantly reduce the amount of waste that usually gets into the oceans. Recycling is an effective way of reducing litter. Papers, plastic containers, and cans can be recycled. Companies also need to lower their packaging to reduce rubbish in the long-run.

Avoid draining sewage into the oceans.

Sewage leads to massive water pollution. It also packs infectious bacteria that cause diseases such as typhoid and cholera. Despite a booming construction industry, builders should be prohibited from draining sewage into oceans to save the marine environment.

Visible plastic waste makes up just 3% of total plastic in the ocean. Tackling the root causes of plastic pollution can also curb other ocean pollutants.

7 solutions here: https://t.co/2yTb83Mphz
— World Resources Inst (@WorldResources) May 30, 2020

Let us work at addressing the marine pollution problem

Marine pollution is rife. Worse still, this pollution is caused by multiple factors, all of which are challenging to keep at bay. Nonetheless, action ought to be taken to counter marine pollution, preventing it from compromising the marine life and human health.

Marine pollution is an urgent environmental issue. Trash and chemicals from land and ships pollute the vital aquatic ecosystems, with plastics being a major pollutant.

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David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

The post Sources, effects and how to prevent marine pollution appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

19 Major Environmental Concerns of our World Today

Davidokul — Fri, 29 May 2020 13:08:52 +0000

By David Okul

The world faces various environmental concerns that threaten our very existence on the planet. Most of the issues arise from our unsustainable use of natural resources. We have compiled a list of 19 problems that we think should concern any human.

1. Climate Change is making earth less inhabitable.

The effects of climate change arise from human-induced global warming. Scientists explain that climate change is already affecting the planet as we are experiencing the warmest recorded years. Climate change is also affecting the earth in:

Unpredictable and extreme weather patterns such as prolonged and irregular droughts and heatwaves. The ice in the polar regions is also melting, leading to sea-level rise.
Spread of diseases as a warmer climate causes the formation of ground-level ozone that irritates the lungs and causes asthma. Also, warmer freshwater makes it easier for disease-causing bacteria to grow.
Reduced agricultural production because of unpredictable weather
The risk to transportation and infrastructure

As a significant environmental concern, climate change will have unprecedented implications on where humans will settle, build cities, and grow food.

2. Waste pollution is a major environmental concern of our times

Waste pollution is a primary environmental concern that causes severe health and environmental problems. The average human being produces an estimated 4.5 pounds (2 kilograms) of waste daily. Although some of the disposed waste can rot, not all waste is susceptible to rotting. Some of the trash disposed of in landfills generates vast amounts of methane. Methane gas is not only explosive but also contributes to carbon emissions.

Another problem with waste pollution is plastics. While plastics may be convenient for our daily lives, they have a devastating impact on the environment. Since the 1950s, industries have produced over 8.3 billion tons of plastic. And 60% of that plastic is in landfills since plastic takes approximately a thousand years to disintegrate-nobody knows. It is truly the bad boy of pollution as most of it ends up in our oceans, killing fishes and other organisms there.

3. Deforestation has impacts on species and climate

Deforestation involves permanent eradication of forest cover and the process of eradicating natural forests for infrastructure, agriculture, and other uses. Deforestation contributes to various major environmental concerns, including:

Loss of habitat, which in return leads to loss of animal and plant species (biodiversity loss).
The rise in greenhouse gases causing global warming and climate change
Cause of flooding and soil erosion
Not to mention its role in the destruction of homelands for the indigenous people.

We should not only work at saving the significant forests of the world but also smaller and lesser-known forests and trees.

4. Urbanization presents a unique threat to animals and plants.

Urbanization has significant impacts on both animals and humans. About two-thirds of the global population is expected to live in cities by 2050. In comparison, only 2% of the population lived in urban areas in 1800. The availability of jobs is among the factors luring people to cities. Massive urban growth has various environmental concerns, such as:

Water, air, noise and other pollution which have serious implications for human health.
Automobile exhaust in cities leads to increased levels of lead in urban air.
Huge volumes of waste in cities lead to myriads of health hazards.
Biodiversity loss

5. Overpopulation is probably the root cause of environmental issues.

As technology improves, overpopulation remains a pressing environmental issue with adverse impacts on human life and the environment. Overpopulation gradually aggravates the causes of global warming, habitat loss, and environmental pollution. More people in the earth lead to the overconsumption of natural resources, including fossil fuels, freshwater, and arable land.

World population density heat map from 10000 BC to 2016.#overpopulation #population #environment pic.twitter.com/kM8esBKaS1
— Bryan Druzin (@BryanDruzin) September 24, 2019

6. Overfishing threatens marine ecosystems.

The growing population needs food, and fish is a significant source of protein in the world. Fishing is inherently not bad, but the problem arises when more fish than stocks can replenish.

Overfishing attributed to commercial fishing and a massive demand for feeding people. Overfishing is the leading driver of the plummeting marine wildlife populations. The adverse impacts associated with overfishing exceed the marine environment.

Many of the problems of overfishing arise from increased capacities, illegal fishing, and subsidies. It encourages the harvesting of endangered marine species, not to mention the adverse effects on marine diversity.

7. Modern agriculture is a pertinent environmental concern.

A more significant portion of the world’s food supply is from agriculture. Farming is vital in poverty eradication and feeding the ever-growing human population. Regardless, there is a high ecological cost of the practice.

Agricultural activities have negative environmental impacts, including soil degradation and pollution. Agriculture is also linked with multiple ecological issues such as climate change, dead zones, deforestation, irrigation problems, waste, and dead zones. In the course of providing the planet with food, agriculture puts a considerable strain on the environment. For example, it is the world’s largest user of freshwater. Additionally, it remains responsible for most human encroachment on natural forests and grasslands.

8. Water pollution is closer than you think.

The principal causes of water pollution include industrial waste, oil leakages, plastic waste, and sewage. Water pollution drowns rivers, seas, lakes, and reservoirs with chemicals, plastic waste, and other pollutants.

The widespread environmental problem caused by water pollution jeopardizes human and ecological health. Unsafe water kills more people per year than war. Chemical and toxic waste gets into the waterways due to water pollution, causing illnesses and poisoning marine life.

Do not be fooled that water pollution does not affect you. In America, analyzed tap water contained significant amounts of contaminants ranging from arsenic to lead to nitrites.

9. Acid rain has impacts on biodiversity and the soil

The release of chemical compounds such as nitrogen and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere causes acid rain. It is prevalent in highly industrialized countries where production and consumption are high.

While flowing through the soil, acid rain leaches aluminum from soil particles, eventually directing the aluminum into lakes, streams, and oceans.

The adverse effects of acid rain are apparent in aquatic environments like lakes, streams, and marshes. In such situations, acid rain is harmful to marine life and other forms of wildlife. At PH of 5 or lower, most fish are unable to breed, and species may be lost as water acidifies.

Dead or dying plants, including trees, are a common sight in areas with acid rain.

10. The potential threat of ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer occurs in the earth’s stratosphere. It has the significant role of preventing ultraviolet (UV) radiation from reaching the earth’s surface. However, some chemicals containing gaseous chlorine or bromine cause the thinning of the layer. Scientists have identified over 100 ozone-depleting substances (ODS) used by humans in their industry.

Ozone layer depletion is a critical environmental concern since it increases UV radiation on the earth’s surface. The more the amount of UV radiation that hits the earth’s surface, the higher the risk of world populations getting skin cancer, immune system damage, and eye cataracts. The impact of UV radiation on ozone layer depletion affects human life, plants, air quality, and animal species. Epidemiological and laboratory studies show that ozone layer depletion causes malignant melanoma development and non-melanoma skin cancer.

The good news is that the Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, has significantly reduced the ozone layer depletion rate. The Montreal Protocol has successfully removed over 98% of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). This achievement makes it among the most successful multilateral environmental agreements.

Despite the good news, the thinning of the ozone layer is still significant in the polar region. That is why we have put ozone layer depletion as a concern because of its potential negative impacts

11. Air pollution has devastating impacts on health.

Air Pollution is rated as the most substantial environmental health concern in the world. It causes and exacerbates myriads of ailments ranging from cancer to asthma, not to mention heart disease and pulmonary illnesses. Moreover, particulate matter and outdoor air pollution have been termed as carcinogenic to both humans and animals.

In industrialized nations of Europe and Asia, 90% of the population is exposed directly to air pollution. Apart from affecting animal lives and human health, air pollution impacts the human-made environment and natural ecosystems adversely.

Air pollution from tire wear is getting little attention. Regardless, air pollution from tire wear is 1000 times more harmful than what gets out of the exhaust.

Greenhouse gases also arise from air pollution. The gases trap earth’s heat in the atmosphere leading to global warming and climate change.

12. Reducing biodiversity is bad for livelihoods and health.

The planet has been experiencing reduced biodiversity for over five decades. The main drivers for the dwindling biodiversity are associated with surging consumption levels and demographic pressures. In general, biodiversity loss implies the loss of ecosystem services as well.

Biodiversity loss has also been identified as an impediment to future development. It suppresses ecosystems, hence making them vulnerable to perturbations. The environmental impacts linked to reduced biodiversity are more severe to the poor, rural communities. Such communities depend on the ecosystem for their livelihoods. Poor people will directly depend on wild animals and plants for food, shelter, and even clothing. The emerging trend of ecotourism means that communities depend on natural areas for tourism income.

Biodiversity also has a devastating impact on health. The Covid-19 pandemic is an illustration of the importance of biodiversity to health. As humans reduce biodiversity, we become more prone to deadly zoonotic diseases in two ways. Firstly, the number of diseases-carrying animals in the local population increase. Secondly, humans get closer contact with disease-carrying species.

13. Our transportation is causing pollutions of all kinds.

Modern forms of transportation, including air, water, and road transport, are increasing. Within the transport sector, roads are the most significant contributors to global warming. The impacts are enormous; In America, nearly 50% of people live in areas that don’t meet the federal air quality standards.

Transportation is a crucial consumer of energy, hence impacting heavily on the environment. As a result, transportation is to blame for surging air pollution and carbon emissions. Transportation activities cause adverse environmental impacts such as outdoor air pollution, which kills millions of people throughout the world. Gases emanating from transportation such as nitrous oxides also contribute heavily to global warming.

14. Soil degradation is a serious environmental concern in natural resource management.

Soil is the anchor of life on earth, as is one of the most precious resources for man. Regardless, the world has lost almost half of the world’s topsoil last 150 years.

Soil degradation is the reduction in soil quality, primarily due to the inappropriate use of soil and its poor management. Soil degradation is attributed to increased agricultural and industrial use. Soil degradation is a crucial environmental concern, considering that it ruins the soil.

Soil erosion is one of the most prevalent types of soil degradation, and it takes different forms. It can either entail water erosion, salinity, wind erosion, or soil contamination.

15. Shipping is polluting waters.

The key environmental impacts of shipping are water pollution, oil pollution, acoustic, and air pollution. Water vessels such as ships cause 18% of global air pollution. Shipping is further associated with increased greenhouse gas emissions. The sulfur dioxide emanating from water vessels oxidizes in the air, forming nitrogen and sulfate compounds. These compounds lead to acid rain. Oil spillages from ships is a threat to marine life.

16. Environmental concerns of conflict and wars

Natural resources are sometimes the cause of conflict and war. However, environmental-related stresses and natural resources mismanagement can be implicated in all stages of any war. Conflict and wars create a myriad of environmental hazards such as:

Unexploded ordnance that could hurt biodiversity and humans
Use of harmful chemicals, such as Agent Orange and Strontium-90
Greenhouse gases
Intentional flooding
Poaching wildlife for food and trade

Modern warfare that includes biological weaponry, chemical, and nuclear weapons could have devastating impacts on the ecosystem

17. Technology including the internet is also an emerging environmental concern

Technology definition is the ‘application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, and the machinery and devices developed as a result’ In the last century or so, technological revolutions have rapidly changed our way of life as a species. Given that technology can also be useful in solving some environmental concerns, it is a cause of environmental problems such as:

Pollution of air, water, soil, and sound
Over extraction of natural resources for the manufacture of the technological devices

The internet technology is also not as clean as you think. Of course, a few grams of carbon dioxide were used in the manufacture and operation of the devices we use for internet. Even more intensive is the greenhouse gases emitted from the vast servers and data centers used for supporting the internet. The energy needed to send an email is minute, but considering that over 4 billion people use the internet, it is quickly emerging as a pertinent environmental concern. Some scientists estimate that the internet accounts for 3.7% of all global greenhouse gas emissions.

18. Ocean acidification-the 'twin of climate change.'

Over 30% of all carbon dioxide produced ends up in our oceans. Once it is absorbed by the seawater, a chemical reaction occurs resulting in the reduction of seawater PH. In other words, the water becomes acidic.

The oceans’ PH has reduced by 0.1 PH units since the start of the industrial revolution. The change appears small, but it has significant implications on the biodiversity of the oceans. Some of which include:

Reduce the ability of fish like pollock and clownfish to detect predators putting the entire ecosystem at risk
Reduction of carbonate ions for calcifying organisms to build their shells. Affected species include pteropods, oysters and corals
Some species, such as algae and seagrass, benefit from ocean acidification. Just like plants on land, they require carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Climate change mitigation measures will also halt ocean acidification.

19. Poverty as an environmental issue

It is hard to convince a poor person that the destruction of the environment is a bad thing. Poverty negatively affects the environment in several ways. For example

Poor people tend to have more children because of high death rates and security in old age
Overexploitation of natural resources in deforestation, bushmeat poaching overfishing, and poor agriculture. Poor people tend to rely almost entirely on the environment for sustenance
Poor hygiene practices because of limited sanitation
Energy poverty is synonymous with poverty. It occurs when people lack modern energy services. Over 3 billion people are affected by energy poverty implying that they rely on traditional fuel sources such as firewood, which is terrible for their health and destructive to the environment

However, solving the poverty problem does not necessarily mean that environment would be better off. After all, wealthy people tend to overconsume and produce lots of wastes. Poverty and wealth influence to the environment is complicated.

Parting Shot: The Environmental concerns need urgent attention

I think that environmental concerns can be solved when we address the issue of population and consumption simultaneously. If we reduce our population growth and consumption rate, we can give the earth a much-needed breather. The coronavirus pandemic illustrates how environmental issues reduce when we reduce our modern (some unnecessary) activities.

And it starts with you. Every small action can be a step towards improving the environment.

Unless you think that there is a second habitable planet, you should be concerned about the various issues. The good thing is that you can implement your nature-based solutions in attempts to heal the earth. If we are not careful, one or a combination of the 19 major environmental threats may exterminate our planet sooner than we think

The Positive Effects of Coronavirus on the Air Pollution Globally

May 24, 2020

The Environmental Benefits of the Coronavirus (COVID 19)

April 29, 2020

Nine Reasons why Plastics are regarded as the Bad Boys of Global Pollution

July 19, 2019

The post 19 Major Environmental Concerns of our World Today appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

The coronavirus is causing an increase of plastic pollution

Davidokul — Mon, 25 May 2020 18:04:38 +0000

By David Okul

Various blogs, NGOs, and news agencies have documented the environmental benefits of coronavirus. Notwithstanding the short-term ecological advantages, coronavirus plastic pollution is rife.

Plastic is a significant component for most of the things we use to manage the virus, such as gloves, masks, sanitizer bottles, and other medical equipment. Unfortunately, most of the public discard plastics poorly such that massive plastic pollution is looming.

The coronavirus pandemic is responsible for massive plastic pollution. This article delves into the solid waste pollution effects of COVID 19, specifically plastic pollution.

Unbanning the use of single-use plastics

Some countries and cities had banned the use of single-use plastic bags. Nonetheless, industry players are pushing for the ban purportedly lifted to supply the much-needed protective equipment.

In response, nations and cities are reinstating the use and manufacturing of single-use plastic bags during the pandemic. After all, many people believe that avoiding the use of reusable bags is limiting the spread of the virus. As such, governments are encouraging supermarkets to give free disposable plastic bags. These developments are a threat to the hard-won environmental benefits associated with the ban on the use and manufacture of plastics.

Environmentalists have expressed worry that lifting the plastic ban will undermine all the efforts aimed at reducing single-use plastics.

Reduced recycling of plastic waste

The recycling industry, like other industries, has been shut down following the pandemic. The shutdown means that recycling plants are not recycling the additional plastic products emanating from the management of the virus.

Even more concerning is the higher cost of recycling plastics. Oil is a primary raw material for the manufacture of plastics. The coronavirus has made the price of oil go to a record low, which means that it is easier to manufacture new plastic instead of recycling.

As such, coronavirus plastic pollution will continue to surge during the pandemic. Worse still, nations will lack the capacity to recycle the massive volumes of plastic waste after the pandemic.

An increase in plastic medical waste

Plastics have been vital for keeping hospitals and health facilities running smoothly during the ongoing pandemic. They are the bedrock of protective gear and medical equipment. The pandemic has resulted in massive production of plastic medical supplies. For instance, Ferrari, which is among the world’s leading automobile companies, recently started production of the thermoplastic components required for respiratory valves.

On the other hand, Apple has embarked on massive production of plastic face shields specifically for medical professionals. Simply put, the pandemic has encouraged the overproduction of plastic medical supplies. As the demand for plastic medical supplies skyrockets, one thing is apparent. The volume of plastic medical waste will rise rapidly. Over time, this waste will contribute to the billions of tons of plastic waste.

Sustainability has been thrown out of the window.

COVID 19 has significantly altered how consumers use plastic bags alongside other disposable products. The dangers of disposable plastics seem to be overly assumed, notwithstanding the concern over hygiene and health during the Coronavirus pandemic. Players in the food industry are encouraged to offer to take away options and home deliveries. Some even prohibit consumers from bringing their food containers. As such, consumers are somewhat forced to switch to disposable food packaging options. Such options only generate extensive plastic waste in the long-run. In such instances, most consumers can do little to cut their plastic waste.

While coronavirus is sweeping our country right now, we shouldn't forget that climate change, plastic pollution and environmental crisis are not going anywhere!

This is what #GreenCities can do to help during the recovery periodhttps://t.co/aKOvVBH8s6
— Earth Day Network (@EarthDayNetwork) May 22, 2020

Ironically, the same ‘hygienic’ plastic expose others to health risks

Certain groups of the world’s population are at high risk of adverse health risks from exposure to plastic waste. For instance, garbage collectors, cleaners, and people who spend countless hours in public spaces are vulnerable to COVID 19. The people responsible for keeping the environment clean are highly susceptible to coronavirus as well. Droplets lingering on discarded gloves and masks may infect such people. Apart from being exposed to COVID 19, these people can also get other types of infections from pathogens lingering on discarded protective equipment. For instance, they can catch Hepatitis B and meningitis.

The oceans’ plastic burden is worsening

The COVID 19 pandemic has sparked a demand for personal protective equipment across the world. Nations insist that their citizens should wear face masks and gloves in public. While such precaution measures are vital for keeping the coronavirus spreading at bay, the impact of protective equipment is palpable on the streets across the world. There are dozens of discarded masks and gloves all over the residential places in virtually all states.

Eventually, the wastes reach into the oceans following heavy rains. This waste is now worsening the oceans’ plastic burden, which is already choking under the massive volume of plastic waste.

Who else finds this absolutely appalling?

We have to stop polluting our oceans with plastic.

We must reduce our use of #plastic and go #plasticfree! #plasticpollution #breakfreeofplastic #sustainability #nature #environment #ocean #pollution

pic.twitter.com/tj7ESndmni
— Ryan Hodgson (@Ryanintheus) April 4, 2020

The pandemic poses a threat to the fight against plastic pollution

Environmentalists have expressed concerns that the gains made on the war against plastic pollution are quickly being reversed during the pandemic. Before the lockdowns, the use of plastic bags was in retreat. Various governments had subjected plastics to strict restrictions in many places. As such, the world was becoming highly mindful of plastic products. Companies were opting for more sustainable packaging options.

As mentioned before, the use of plastic primarily for making protective gear is surging. Also, suppliers are increasingly using single-use plastic to wrap products as it is more hygienic. The scenario is threatening to undo the many years of progress witnessed after the ban of plastic products.

An overall increase in plastic pollution

The plastic pollution rate was reducing after some nations agreed to ban single-use plastic products. Nonetheless, plastic pollution is now at its peak after governments suspended the ban on these products. During the pandemic, plastic waste is prevalent in public and residential areas. If the COVID-19 situation persists for several months, plastic pollution will continue to rise drastically. Although the UN has called for plastic pollution awareness during the pandemic, coronavirus plastic pollution is fast taking center stage. Plastic pollution poses a risk to human health. Furthermore, plastic pollution is to blame for the death of millions of marine species. It is also a serious threat to human health thanks to the toxins that find their way to human food.

The Coronavirus pandemic has led to an increase in plastic pollution. Apart from creating plastic pollution awareness, the world must focus on more sustainable choices for all the protective equipment needed by citizens during the pandemic. Moreover, recycling plastic waste should be done expeditiously to stop the ongoing massive coronavirus plastic pollution, which is detrimental to humans, wildlife, and marine life.

plastic pollution Archives - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development

Payment for Ecosystem Services: Theoretical background

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

I. Overview of the concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services.

II. Theoretical Foundations of PES

III. Implementation Mechanisms of PES

IV. Effectiveness and Challenges of PES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Environmental Externalities: Research Paper

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Importance of addressing environmental externalities

Thesis statement outlining the scope and purpose of the paper.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition and classification of environmental externalities

Historical context and evolution of the concept

Key studies and research on environmental externalities

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Air pollution: Sources, impacts, and mitigation strategies

Water pollution: Causes, consequences, and regulatory measures

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Market failures and the role of externalities

Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and Coase theorem

1. Pigouvian Taxation:

2. Coase Theorem:

Comparison:

Conclusion:

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Emerging trends in environmental policy and technology

Recommendations for policymakers, businesses, and individuals/civil society.

CONCLUSION

Summary of key findings

Call to action for sustainable practices and policies.

REFERENCES

Sources, effects and how to prevent marine pollution

By David Okul

Effects of marine pollution

How can we prevent marine pollution?

Let us work at addressing the marine pollution problem

19 Major Environmental Concerns of our World Today

By David Okul

Table of Contents

1. Climate Change is making earth less inhabitable.

2. Waste pollution is a major environmental concern of our times

3. Deforestation has impacts on species and climate

4. Urbanization presents a unique threat to animals and plants.

5. Overpopulation is probably the root cause of environmental issues.

6. Overfishing threatens marine ecosystems.

7. Modern agriculture is a pertinent environmental concern.

8. Water pollution is closer than you think.

9. Acid rain has impacts on biodiversity and the soil

10. The potential threat of ozone layer depletion

11. Air pollution has devastating impacts on health.

12. Reducing biodiversity is bad for livelihoods and health.

13. Our transportation is causing pollutions of all kinds.

14. Soil degradation is a serious environmental concern in natural resource management.

15. Shipping is polluting waters.

16. Environmental concerns of conflict and wars

17. Technology including the internet is also an emerging environmental concern

18. Ocean acidification-the 'twin of climate change.'

19. Poverty as an environmental issue

Parting Shot: The Environmental concerns need urgent attention

The coronavirus is causing an increase of plastic pollution

By David Okul

Unbanning the use of single-use plastics

Reduced recycling of plastic waste

An increase in plastic medical waste

Sustainability has been thrown out of the window.

Ironically, the same ‘hygienic’ plastic expose others to health risks

The oceans’ plastic burden is worsening

The pandemic poses a threat to the fight against plastic pollution

An overall increase in plastic pollution