Seedlings are delicate and susceptible to attack by various pests and diseases as well as weather conditions. Such damages can seriously weaken or kill the seedlings. It is important that the damages be dealt with immediately.

Damage and disasters in the nursery may be categorized as below.

• Weather conditions: This is damage caused by adverse weather conditions. We can either regulate watering or shading to comply with prevailing weather conditions.
• Human: This is the stealing and/or intentional damaging of seedlings by human beings. Fencing and security are examples of options to overcome this. You remember that security is among the most important thing to consider when starting a nursery.
• Livestock and wild animals: Livestock and wild animals browse or graze on seedlings. Fencing can reduce attacks from livestock. Also, rodents like Field mice/rats frequently could damage to seedlings in the nursery when they eat them. Maintaining p[roper hygiene is one way of controlling the attacks. Additionally, a well-made fence could somehow protect them. I have seen people who keep cats in the proximity of their nurseries, and the biological control works for them!
• Insects: Termites are the most common recorded insects in the nursery. They eat the roots and stems of many tree species. Eucalyptus species is particularly prone to their attack. There are various methods that can be used to control termites:
• Spraying layers of ashes to deter them
• A manual approach could also be used where you can identify where the queen termite is and kill it. The termites will move when they have no queen. Somehow cruel!
• Using chemicals e.g., Dieldrin and Aldrin; As environmentalists, we do not advocate for the use of chemicals.
• If milk packets are used for potting, they need to be washed with soap and water or insecticide solution before potting, otherwise, your nursery is likely to attract termites.

Another insect that attacks tree nurseries is gall flies. The attack from gall flies worsens when the seedlings are water-stressed. As such, the condition is improved by providing the seedlings with an adequate amount of water.

• Weeds: Weeds will compete with the seedling for food, sunlight, and water. As a nursery manager, it is paramount that you protect the seedlings from weeds. Practices for weed protection include crop weedicides, mulching and planting cover crops. However, Silvica recommends the use of manual control of weeds in a nursery bed and seedbed.

Diseases in Tree nursery

Various diseases can occur in the tree nursery. The origins for disease in the nursery vary and they include:

Infested soils: Many pathogens occur in soils. Take great care while during the soil mixing and potting process

Plant debris: These could act as hosts to pathogens. Do you get why soil sieving is important?

Other plants: diseases can also emanate from other existing plants in the nursery; whether they are seedlings or mature plants. It is good to deal with any plant that shows a sign o disease in the nursery

Water: Water may contain pathogens. Also, under watering and over watering could lead to diseases.

Air: Most fungal diseases can be spread when air carries the spores.

The USDA classifies nursery diseases as follows:

• Roots and soilborne diseases
• Stem and branch diseases (Cankers)
• Foliage diseases
• And storage molds

A great resource on the nursery diseases of the United States from the USDA could be accessed here . Also, an overview of nursery diseases in New Zealand could be accessed here . The two resources could assist you understand the nature of disease in your nursery. 

Fungal Disease

Although there are various diseases, which attack seedlings in the nursery, damping-off, powdery mildew and wilt are described here since they are the most common fungal diseases in East Africa and areas with similar agro-climatic conditions.

Damping Off

This is a fungal disease mainly caused by Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia salani. Dampness in the nursery often increases the severity of attacks. Damping-off can occur before germination, after germination and at pricking out.

The fungi attack the seedlings at soil level and cause rotting of the part attacked consequently killing the seedling. Susceptible species include Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Dovyalis, etc.

Conditions favourable to spreading of the disease are;

• High sowing intensity
• Overwatering
• Using soil with under-composed material
• Damaging the bark of tender seedlings

Control measures: avoid sowing seeds too close to each other, Use of appropriate quantity of water or not damaging the bark of seedlings

Wilting

It is often caused by overcrowding as well.

It can be controlled by providing the seedlings with adequate space. Nursery managers could separate the seedlings through thinning or planting out.

Powdery mildew

It is recognized by the observation of small white powdery patches on the leaf that often spreads to the entire leaf area. The mycelial colonies lead to defoliation. The disease is common among young seedlings.

Control: As it is highly contagious. The fallen and infected leaves should be collected and buried in the soil. Better still, you can burn the affected leaves in a controlled environment. Chemicals (such as Benlate) can be used to control it too.

When it comes to nursery diseases or any diseases for that matter, prevention is better than cure. Many of the nursery diseases could be avoided by good husbandry in correct seed sourcing, adequate watering, correct spacings and general cleanliness of the nursery. Also, efforts should be made to protect seedlings from preventable damages.

Now that you have planted your seeds in the nursery, let us focus on the nursery operations that are often needed when the seedling is growing. Many people assume that seedlings would only need watering at this point. They are right, to some extent. But, for most tree species in the tropics (especially in sub-Saharan Africa), other operations such as pricking out, root pruning, and hardening off would be necessary.

Pricking Out: one of the most traditional nursery operations in forestry 

Pricking out refers to a nursery operation where seedlings are transferred from the seedbed to the containers. The correct time to do pricking out is when the seedlings start to show true leaves. You should know that the first leaves from seed are the germination leaves. True leaves develop after the germination leaves.

The pricking out process involves:

• Before starting to prick out seedlings from the seedbed, you should ensure that your pots in the nursery bed are ready for seedlings.
• Watering the seedbed and containers with enough water before starting
• Prepare shade to reduce the exposure of the seedlings to direct sunlight.
• Fill a container with water.
• Use a dibble or pencil-sized stick to loosen the soil.
• Gently pull out the seedlings and place them in the container with water. The roots shouldn’t be exposed to the sun as they may dry out
• Do not take very many seedlings from the seedbed at once.

Now it is time to plant the seedlings to the nursery bed.

• Make a hole at the center of the planting pot using a stick or dibble.
• Cut the roots if they are too long for the pot.
• Avoid holding the stem as they are too feeble and tender.
• Ensure that the air pockets around the roots are closed by pushing the soil towards the seedling
• Water the pots well after completing the planting process. It is a good idea to arrange seedlings pricked out at the same time in the same nursery bed.

The use of seedbeds to establish seedlings is becoming an outdated nursery operation in forestry. Modern foresters recommend nursery operations that involve planting seeds directly to pots after pretreatment. However, seedbeds are still useful for some species and circumstances. For instance, species with very low germination rates are still best raised under a seedbed. Additionally, one can plant seeds in a seedbed in case he/she has the seeds, but the soil and or pots are not ready yet.

Pricking out is mainly done when an individual wants to transfer seedlings from a seedbed to the nursery bed or pots. But even for seedlings raised in pots, the pricking out process is necessary when you want to transfer seedlings from pots that have two or more seedlings to those that have none. 

Shading as a tree nursery operation 

The whole point of a tree nursery is protecting seedlings from extreme environmental influences until they can better withstand the conditions. Germinating and recently transplanted seedlings need some protection from the hot sun (especially in the tropics), heavy rain, and hard frost (in the temperate regions). Some form of shading can assist in protecting the seedlings from the environmental factors. Often, shading would help in reducing the losses through the leaves (transpiration), and it also reduces the temperatures of the plant and soil.

You should remember that plants require sunlight for good growth. As such, the shading needs to be regulated. Indeed, we do not recommend 100% shading at all! A poor, but unfortunately common, strategy in a nursery is to maintain the plants under shade for the entire nursery period. Plants with too much shade have the following characteristics:

• They are stunted or will grow slowly. Tall and skinny stems are among the common indicators of seedlings in too much shade.
• They are dark green or will be yellowish (which is more common)
• They would be inevitably susceptible to disease and insect attack.

Silvica recommends that 40-50% shading is sufficient for most species. Also, as the plant ages, the shading is reduced. The hardening-off section of this article describes the process in detail. Shade reduction should be a gradual process. The sudden removal of the shade may cause burning of the seedlings. You see, plants put under too much shade will adapt to the dark condition. Sudden exposure to sunlight makes it difficult for the chemical processes in the leaves to adapt fast. 

Nursery managers prefer natural shade for obvious reasons. They are cheap and mimic the natural conditions for the tree seedling. Regardless, nursery owners should ensure the trees do not provide too much shade. The shade trees should also allow sunlight to penetrate. An ideal shade tree would retain its leaves during the dry season and lose them during the rainy season. A tree that pollards well is also advantageous as it can be pollarded during the wet seasons. Shading using natural trees is a disadvantage for bare-rooted seedlings as the trees would directly compete for nutrients with the shade trees.

Construct a shade to protect the seedlings from direct sunlight for two to three weeks after pricking out.

You can use locally available materials such as grass or shade nets for shade construction.

Watering- an apparent nursery operation

Did you know that 90% of most plants is water? It goes without saying, the watering of seedlings is necessary nursery operation for the excellent growth of seedlings in a nursery. When grown in containers, nursery plants have only a limited volume of the substrate and do not have the ability of mature trees to search for water from below the soil surface. The amount of water seedlings require depends on:-

• Seedling age. More water is needed after germination when the seedling is young and at pricking out, but this requirement reduces as the seedling grows in age. The amount of water should reduce at the time when the seedling is nearing the planting stage. Like in shading, the reduction of water is part of hardening off (read about it in the later sections of the blog)
• Amount of sunlight. The sun causes the leaves to lose water through the transpiration process. As such, seedlings in sunny areas lose more water compared to the ones grown in shady areas. But, do not raise your seedlings in overly shaded areas to avoid water loss. Remember, sunlight is also a requirement for raising healthy seedlings. After all, plants need sunlight to make food in the process of photosynthesis.
• Soil type. A sandy soil loses water faster than soil with high clay content hence needs more frequent watering. The disadvantage of clay soil is that it becomes hard cracks when dry. Ensure that the soil used in the nursery is collected and mixed correctly. Watering the seedlings should be directed at the earth and not the leaves. A watering can or a hosepipe with a nozzle should be used to ensure uniform distribution water, and one should water the whole bed and not just the plants in the center of the bed. Also, you should ensure that water gets to the bottom of the container.

Too much water can damage the plants just as much as not enough water because of waterlogging, which makes it difficult for the roots to ‘breath.’

Ideally, watering should be done in the morning and evening when the sun is not intense. If this is not possible, then water once a day in the evening.

You can water the seedlings once or not all during rainy seasons. Just to reiterate, you should avoid under-watering and overwatering. Use an adequate amount of water, e.g., 20 liters for 1,000 seedlings.

Weeding

Weeds are a threat to healthy seedlings development as they compete with seedlings for nutrients, water, and light. Hence they must be controlled. As one of the nursery operations, tree nursery managers sometimes neglect to weed. They assume that weeds do not affect the growth of tree seedling. A good nursery operation ensures that seedlings are free from weeds.

Process

With your hands or a dibble, gently pull out unwanted growth (rouging) where weeds are observed.

Remove all the weeds around the beds with a jembe ( garden hoe).  Do not leave any rubbish around unless you want to turn it into compost.

Application of additional fertilizers (Nutrition)

Fertilizers or manure is applied when the seedlings show a sign of weakness. The most common fertilizers are NPK and DAP.

It’s important to note that you can also use manure from livestock. However, pest and diseases can also cause weakness in seedlings (not nutrients alone). The application of fertilizer is, however, not very common in most tree nursery operations because it is expensive. Also, most nurseries want to be eco-friendly, and inorganic fertilizers have several ecological issues. 

Root pruning tree seedlings

Root pruning is the tree nursery operation that involves cutting the roots of seedlings that have overgrown the containers or pots in the nursery bed. Many people I train have a concern about root pruning, but researchers have established that it is one of the beneficial nursery operations.

Why root prune? When seedlings have reached a certain size, and their roots become longer than the depth of the pots. The problem is that when the roots are left to grow, they will develop root systems in the nursery. You see, if a nursery foreman/manager allows this, it would be hard to move the seedlings when the time for planting outcome. Moreover, if the roots are cut when the seedling is old, the procedure is likely to result in a weakened plant. As such, periodic root pruning is recommended to avoid the problems associated with seedlings developing roots beyond their beds’ height. The period and interval of root pruning tree seedlings depend on different species and other conditions. Nevertheless, root pruning is done when seedlings’ roots have started to penetrate under the surface. 

Procedure

• Water the seedlings properly before root pruning.
• Cut the long roots underneath the container using a sharp knife, scissors or available cutting material.
• Water the seedlings well after root pruning. This watering helps the plant withstand moisture stress.
• Some nursery managers choose to place the seedlings on stones or polythene sheets to reduce the need for root pruning.
• Seedings on a raised bed can be pruned by using a sharp object underneath the bed after watering.

Hardening off

The process of hardening-off aims at acclimatizing tree seedlings to the harsh conditions of the field. The nursery operation is vital for the survival of tree seedling during planting out. While in the nursery, the seedlings are pampered as they are protected against sunlight, are watered twice a day, etc. The life in the field for a tree seedling is not as rosy. Often, seedlings have to encounter challenges ranging from excess sunlight to wildlife to livestock to human interference.

Although nursery managers cannot extensively prepare seedlings for the challenges in the field, they can gradually prepare the seedlings to the harsh conditions in the field using the hardening off nursery operations technique.

Hardening up process:

• The shade should be removed for some period before the seedling is planted out.
• Reduction in watering intensity (quantity) and frequency e.g., water twice a week and later once a week
• Before planting out, root pruning should be carried out frequently or re-arrangement of pots to allow more adoption to stress.
• Good preparation for out planting results in good field survival, therefore hardening off should be done 2 – 4 weeks before out planting time.

Postponing planting

Sometimes, it is not possible to plant out tree seedlings when they reach the right size (about 1.5 feet or 50 cm) because of various reasons. For the case of a nursery selling tree seedlings, the tree species may not have been bought. Some foresters recommend that the postponing planting nursery operations procedure is necessary. It involves cutting the tips of the plant to avoid overgrowing. However, cutting the tip for some species causes stunted growth or slow vertical development. Ideally, you should plan to avoid the situation where seedlings overgrow in your nursery.

Other nursery operations in tree nursery management include the ones that deal with establishing a nursery, soil collection and mixing, and seed collection and pretreatments. 

Seed Collection, Handling and storage

Like many crops, trees are grown from seed. As such, tree seed collection and handling are critical stages in tree growing and nursery establishment. The seeds must be collected from the right source and be of good quality. However, many people tend to collect seeds which are easy to collect and less attention is given to the quality of the seeds. A very wrong strategy!

What is a seed?

Seeds usually occur in fruits and they are capable of developing into another plant. There are different types of seeds including:

1. Follicle: A dry fruit that splits along one edge e.g Grevillea (Grevillea robusta is a common exotic tree in East Africa, most examples in this post will include cases and species in East Africa, particularly Kenya).
2. Pod: A dry fruit that splits along two edges e.g. Acacia species
3. Samara: A dry fruit with wings e.g. Combretum molle
4. Nut:g. podocarpus
5. Berry: A fleshy fruit with several seeds e.g. Warbugia ugandensis (East African greenheart)
6. Drupe: Fleshy fruit with one endocarp surrounding the seed e.g. Africa olives
7. Cone: Dry fruit with woody scales e.g. cypress species

Mother/ parent trees

Make all attempts to use good quality seeds for your nursery. Good quality seeds can be bought from certified suppliers or they can be collected. If you decide to collect the seeds, ensure that you identify good mother/parent trees. These are the trees which have good quality seeds and are used continuously to provide tree seeds. A mother tree for good seed collection has the following characteristics:

• Healthy, vigorous and well-formed
• Near the maturity stage
• Are good producers of the desired product
• Grows in areas surrounded by a healthy stand of the same species

Very young and very old trees should not be selected because they will not produce viable seeds

Before collecting seeds it is recommended that one does a flower and fruit survey. Basically, the survey means checking out the stages of the tree in terms of flower and fruit production.

The seeds can be collected from the trees in two ways:

• Collection on the ground: this is where one collects fallen seeds. One can use plastic sheets of paper to collect clean seeds.
• Collection from the crown:

After seed collection, handling process follows. The first handling activity is extracting the seeds. Pulpy fruits such as drupe and berries might require some soaking while dry fruits such as pods and follicle might require some drying and splitting.

After extracting seeds from fruits, it is time to store them, but not all seeds can store well as they have different behaviours. The different seed behaviour includes:

1. Recalcitrant seeds: these are the types of seeds that cannot store for a long time without losing viability e.g. East African Green Heart. Once they are collected and extracted, they should be planted immediately.
2. Orthodox seeds: these are seeds that can store for a very long time without losing their viability e.g. Acacia seeds can store for up to ten years
3. Intermediate seeds are between orthodox and recalcitrant

Pre-treatment of seeds

In natural conditions, seeds of many tree species take a long time to germinate or have very low germination percentage. Tree seeds are often in the dormant stage while they await the occurrence of favourable conditions. Pre-treatment of seeds is undertaken to speed up germination time and get good germination percentages. There are various pre-treatment methods including soaking, nicking, and cracking.

Soaking seed in hot water

Soak the seed in hot water until the seeds look swollen. This is used for seeds of trees such as Calliandra, most Acacias, and Albizia.

Procedure: It is a simple procedure that involves boiling water and placing seeds inside the water. The seeds remain until they are swollen (In most cases, the seeds will be soaked overnight).

Soaking seed in cold/cool water

This method is recommended for seeds that have soft seed coats such as Sesbania, Tephrosia, Dalbergia

species, Gmelina, Gliricidia, etc. Soaking in cold water usually take 24 hours, but some species could need 2 hours.

Procedure:

• Soak the seeds in cold water which is 2 times its volume
• Remove all floating seeds
• Sow the remaining seeds at the bottom in containers in the nursery or direct sow directly in the field after

Cracking the seed shell method

This method is used for tree species with a hard coat like Melia, Podo Species, Croton megalocarpus, etc. The idea for cracking is for water to penetrate through the hard coat for easier germination. Cracking is done using a sharp knife, a stone or a cracking machine

Nicking

This is by cutting the seed coat to enable moisture to pass through to the seed. It can be done by a razor blade, sandpaper, knife or fine pliers

The point of nicking is at the place furthest from where the seed was attached to the fruit/ pod. You should be careful that you may not damage the inside of the seed.

Seeds with hard seed coat such as Acacias can be pretreated in this way

No pretreatment

Seeds such as Croton megalocarpus, Neem, Cassia spp. and Kei apple can be sown directly into the container. Fine and light seeds such as Eucalyptus, Casuarina are sown in transplant beds and later pricked out into containers. It is important that fine seed is mixed with sand and uniformly broadcast on the seedbed to avoid overcrowding that can lead to damping off (a disease in the nursery).

Planting the seeds

After applying the correct pretreatment methods, it is time to sow the seeds. The seeds can be planted into a seedbed or directly into pots. Do you know what a seedbed is?

When sowing seeds, do not sow the seed too deep in the soil; the depth of holes should depend on the size of the seeds (usually 5 mm to 1 cm). Sowing too deep is likely to prolong seed germination period or the seeds may rot. As a rough guide, cover the seed with the soil equivalent to the size of the seed.  

Cover the pots or the seedbed after sowing with dry grass and if possible make a shade.

Ideally, the sown seeds should be watered twice daily (in the morning and evening). If this is not possible then water in the evening only since most of the water at this time is taken up by the plant because there is very little evaporation at night.

You need to plan the sowing time so that the seedlings could be ready for planting out at the right time.  is important the seeds are sown in time to enable the seedlings to attain the recommended size (at least 30-45 cm in height). This should be attained before the onset of rains (April or November for most parts in Kenya).

For the propagation of many tree species, there are specific procedures for seed collection, handling, storage, and pretreatment. The availability of the information is common on many forestry websites and local organizations. Make sure you understand the seed management of the species you choose to raise in your nursery.

Soil collection

Soil collection and mixing is vital in nursery operations. This is because the soil collected will be used by the seedling for nutrient and support for quite a long time.

It is very important to select an area with good soil. The existing vegetation of a place can assist in making a judgment if an area has good soil or not. For example, areas with a lot of vegetation indicate fertile soils but areas with less vegetation or vegetation with stunted growth might indicate poor quality soils.

The soil must be rich in nutrient. The soil is dug up to about 20 cm deep, or at the depth where there is good topsoil,  using hoes (Jembes in Swahili) after scraping off the vegetation.

It is best to collect soil three months before potting so that organic matter can decay and the seeds of weeds can germinate and can be removed easily. However, if time does not allow, one can use the collected soil immediately for potting.

After collecting the soil, ensure that it is free from roots, stones, and other substances. Ideally, this can be achieved by sieving the soil.

Soil mixing

Soil mixing is a regular activity in the nursery. The main purpose of soil mixing is to improve the nutrient and drainage of the soil.

To on improve the nutrient, the soil is often mixed with manure. The manure should be fermented NOT fresh!

Sand is added to the soil to improve drainage, especially to clayey soils. Sand is added to allow air and water to infiltrate.

Soil is usually mixed in ratios. The ratio to be used will depend on the type of soil collected. A common ratio for clayey soils in sub-Saharan Africa is 5:2:1 meaning five parts soil to two parts manure to one part sand. Soils with good drainage e.g. loam do not require sand, the ratio, in that case, could be 4:1, meaning four parts soil to one part manure.

It is good to ensure the soil is evenly mixed through thorough overturning.

Potting

The polythene tube 4” by 6” is commonly used as planting pots but 5” by 7” are also good especially for indigenous seedlings that stay in the nursery for a long time. Also locally available materials such as tins, tetra packs, milk packets boxes, etc. can also be used for potting. It is better to use open-bottomed than closed containers since this allows healthier root development and possible root pruning. If tins or other containers are being used, it is important that holes are made in the bottom to allow the movement of water.

The pots are then filled with the mixed and if possible sieved soil. When filling the pots with soil, ensure that the soil is not too compact.  After filling the pots with soil, they should be properly arranged in the nursery. The proper arrangement makes counting of seedlings or pots easier.

In dry areas, it is good to make sunken beds to conserve water

Following the correct procedures in soil collection and mixing in a tree nursery ensures that the substrates for supporting seedlings is of high quality. 

You may be wondering what it takes before starting a tree nursery. Don’t worry, we have you covered as we have outlined ways that ensures your nursery is ready for all the silvicultural operations. 

Tree nursery operations involve various activities such as seed sourcing, Seedbed preparation, Sowing seeds, Potting, Pricking Out, Shading, Watering, Weeding, root pruning, application of additional fertilizers or manure. They are basically the activities that take place during managing a tree nursery.

Establishing a tree nursery

A tree nursery is a place where tree seedlings are raised. Trees are raised in a nursery because:

1. A nursery increases survival chances of seedlings because they can be taken care of in the nursery-young trees are nurtured until mature enough to be moved to the field.
2. A nursery is also important for convenience reason, the seedlings can be planted at the desired time

Well, it is said by some that anything that has an advantage has some disadvantages. The disadvantages of having a tree nursery include:

1. It is expensive to start
2. It also requires a lot of labor.

Factors that influence location of a tree nursery

Where to site a nursery is an important issue to consider before starting because it influences the effort that will be required to maintain it, the way in which it will be managed, and the ease of access to users. Some of the factors to be considered in selecting the site for a nursery include the following:

• There should be a reliable supply of water, ideally being near a river or ponds, or where a water tank or a drum to store water is available
• The site should be accessible all year round so that customers are able to get seedlings easily, and so that nursery staff can manage plants and transport mature seedlings to planting sites and/or markets.
• The area should have a gentle topography; a very flat place will encourage waterlogging while a steep place will encourage soil erosion
• Good soils and other planting materials such as sand should be available easily
• The site should be protected from strong winds and from livestock and other animals.
• There should also be good security so that you do not lose your seedlings to thieves! Or even wildlife!

Factors that influence the size of a tree nursery

How big a nursery should depend on many different factors, of which the following are most important:

• The available space for establishing the nursery. The land available on farms may only be small in area, but more space may be available in public lands like schoolyards or church grounds
• Whether you will grow the seedlings in pots or in beds, and whether they will be raised from seed or from grafts, or from bare-rooted cuttings, etc. This will influence the amount of space each plant needs. Remember that in a nursery additional space is required for keeping collected soil, sand and manure, and for mixing these materials
• The numbers of seedlings to be raised for personal use and for sale. When considering the size of the market for seedlings, it is better to start by being conservative in estimating what your market will be
• The amount of water and other requirements that are available to maintain seedlings

Facilities and resources

When establishing a nursery, it is important to have somewhere to keep nursery tools safely and in good conditions. This does not have to be at the nursery itself, but could be in the house, school, church or other location. The basic tools needed for a nursery include hoes (jembes in Swahili), machetes (pangas in Swahili), shovels, empty tins with small holes in the bottom (to substitute for a watering can), and kitchen knives for root pruning. If resources allow, then proper watering cans, wheelbarrows, pruning knives, knife sharpeners, soil sieves, and shovels are also all useful. 

All in all, starting a tree nursery is a process that may require innovation. Do not postpone starting your nursery because you lack a few things. Get innovative and work with what you have. We surely need the trees!!