Ecosystem Archives - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development http://silvica.site/tag/ecosystem/ Greening our world through content Mon, 27 May 2024 05:00:51 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.7 https://i0.wp.com/silvica.site/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/cropped-silvica_image.jpg?fit=32%2C32 Ecosystem Archives - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development http://silvica.site/tag/ecosystem/ 32 32 162136420 IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology Overview http://silvica.site/iucn-global-ecosystem-typology/ Mon, 27 May 2024 04:53:18 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1533 Startpoint in measuring biodiversity is defining ecosystem types

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By David Okul

Biodiversity monitoring has a vital measurement problem despite the understanding that stocktaking of biodiversity variables plays a critical part in conservation. A common approach in monitoring is using a basket of metrics as it is impossible to measure all the biodiversity variables in an ecosystem.

It goes without saying that the first step of indicator development is developing a clear and agreeable understanding of ecosystem types and subtypes for indicators. IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology is an agreed ecological classification framework that is recommended for renowned environmental accounting standards such as the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA EA). It is a product of critical review and input from leading ecosystem scientists in the world. Furthermore, World Conservation Congress Marseille 2020, voted for a global ecosystem typology under resolution 061.

The IUCN Global Ecosystem typology is a classification system based on hierarchy. At the upper level, it defines ecosystems based on their convergent ecological functions but distinguishes ecosystems with contrasting assemblages in the lower levels.

Higher Level Classification

The top level includes five global realms. These include terrestrial, subterrestrial, freshwater, marine, and the atmosphere. Transitional realms are the intersection between the global realms as variation in nature is continuous.

The second level identifies 25 biomes. These ecosystems are created by human activities that drive and maintain their activity. The traditional definition of biomes involves the classification of continental-scale vegetation with major climate types. Modern definitions also have a basis in the terrestrial vegetation formations but also consider functional and evolutionary processes.

Level 3 has 108 ecosystem functional groups that include ecosystems within a biome with dependencies. The ecosystem functioning groups were developed by identifying key gradients in biomes and major species traits that vary among them. For example, water deficit, seasonality, temperature, nutrient deficiency, fire activity, and herbivory are the gradient filters in the terrestrial environment.

Detailed description and reference to the high-level typology https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2020-037-En.pdf 

Lower Level Classification

The first three levels focus on the functional properties of the ecosystem compared to the next three levels which focus on biogeographic and compositional features. These include biogeographical ecotypes, global ecosystem type, and sub-global ecosystem type. These lower levels of classification are often derived directly from ground observation.

  • SEEA-EA recommends biogeographic ecotypes (or ecoregions) for national and subnational and not for supranational approaches such as the EU
  • Like biogeographical ecotypes, both global and sub-global ecosystem types are already in use in the national structures and could be linked to the upper levels.

Concluding Remarks

The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology presents a viable and practical framework to define the scope and context for biodiversity monitoring. It was developed by a collaboration of many reputable biogeographers around the world. As such, it remains ideal for ecosystem classification and structure. A pertinent critique of the typology is the observation of a great degree of overlap between the various classes. Moreover, some areas of their mapping are inaccurate because of human modification. Regardless, it presents an important starting point for monitoring. Furthermore,  the typology recognizes 3  high levels of classification as coarse. As such, it is upon projects/researchers to refine their classification from steps four through six

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 15 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, he writes for Silvica on various topics. This blog’s views are personal and do not represent the organizations he is associated with. 

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REDD+ Justification and Criticism http://silvica.site/redd-justification-and-criticism/ Wed, 31 Jan 2024 18:50:14 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1504 Insurmountable evidence show how man is destructive to the environment

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By David Okul

This article is in draft phase. Final version will be published on 7th February 2024

Globally, the agriculture, forestry and land use change is a major net emitter of greenhouse gases. It is estimated that the sector contributes 23% of GHG. As such, forest conservation and avoided deforestation are attractive alternatives for climate change mitigation. Against this background, the UNFCCC introduced REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries). The Warsaw Framework provide the basic rules for REDD+ including safegurds for people and the environment, national forest monitoring systems, forest reference levels, MRVs, etc.

In theory, REDD+ is of benefit to both developed and developing countries as developed countries can reduce emissions at low cost by supporting REDD+ while developing countries receive financial incentives to reduce deforestation.

 

Critism of REDD+

Weakened rules

There is concerned that some of the requirements for environmental safeguards, benefit sharing process,a nd participatory approaches are not stringent enough.

Over issuance of credits

There are some reports of REDD+ projects overissuing carbon credits. An important aspect of REDD+ project is calculating the baseline which climate action can be measured.

However, most standards publicly list project information and have space for public comments. More importantly, baselines are reassessed during validation. Recently, Verra revised its baseline assessment period from 10 years to 6 years.

Furthermore, standard agencies often engage group of experts in developing standards and reviewing projects.

Concluding remarks

Scrutiny of carbon projects help to improve transparency and the effectiveness of offset projects.

Tropical forests are reducing. The fact is that projects similar to REDD+ do assist in reducing the rates of deforestation. A number of studies support this claim Malan et al (2024), Everland (2023) and Ropsind et al (2019)

 

 

More reading

https://cbmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13021-023-00228-y

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 15 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, he writes for Silvica on various topics. This blog’s views are personal and do not represent the organizations he is associated with. 

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To Value or Not to Value Nature http://silvica.site/nature-valuation/ Sun, 31 Dec 2023 14:41:26 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1498 Insurmountable evidence show how man is destructive to the environment

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By David Okul

The idea of putting a price on nature is controversial.

The major argument is that nature has an intrinsic value and valuation turns the natural world into a subsidiary of the corporate economy. As such, the proponents of intrinsic value of nature argue that there is no need of putting a price on nature, as it has its own rights independent of human use.

Additionally, some argue that putting monetary value on biodiversity implies that it can be divisible into smaller parts. There is a danger of financialization of nature in large open markets. Many entrepreneurs are seeing potential profits in marketization of nature and are supporting for their development.

Pricing natural assets could also imply that they could be substitutable for other products elsewhere. Many natural assets are not fungible and could not be substituted for other assets. Unlike capital in finance, we cannot invest, borrow, or spend natural capital. The treatment of natural assets as capital could be catastrophic for nature.

Some aspects of the natural environment are harder to quantify than others. For instance, valuing cultural value is notoriously difficult. Supporting services are also hard to quantify. Conversely, for provisional services, simple market values can be determined.

The question remains, is it better to put an imperfect quantification on nature, or continue BAU that regard natural world as valueless?

This is a very tough debate, but my personal opinion is that since the globe is increasingly capitalistic, nature should be valued and integrated in the contemporary capitalist system.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 15 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, he writes for Silvica on various topics. This blog’s views are personal and do not represent the organizations he is associated with. 

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Some Statistics on How Man is Destroying Nature http://silvica.site/some-statistics-on-how-man-is-destroying-nature/ Tue, 26 Sep 2023 15:46:52 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1474 Insurmountable evidence show how man is destructive to the environment

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By David Okul

The natural environment is fundamental to humans’ survival on Earth. It also contributes to our economy and culture. Unfortunately, our ways of life are destructive to the ecosystem.

It is easy to overlook nature and think that everything will always be there. However, multiple evidence shows that nature can be destroyed.

Humans destroy the environment in several ways including:

  • Over-extracting natural resources
  • Pollution of air, soils, and water
  • Destroying landscapes

The reasons for the destruction are pretty simple. Our overpopulation and overconsumption are leading to more urbanization, agriculture, and entertainment. 

Read an article highlighting the major global environmental issues, mainly caused by humans.

Collapse of Species

The bullet points below illustrate how biodiversity is shifting. Links in the bullet points redirect to articles across websites proving the statements.

  • Livestock accounts for 62% of global mammalian biomass while humans account for 34%. Only 4% of the biomass represents wildlife species. The estimate is a startling reminder of the reduced biodiversity.
  • Poultry accounts for 61% of the world’s birds’ biomass. Some estimates claim that poultry biomass could be as much as 80%. In contrast, 4-10% of bird species are farmed as poultry.
  • Over 12% of the known species are faced with the danger of extinction. Over 30% of land and 75% of freshwater resources are utilized for food production.
  • Lost over a third of tigers and elephant populations since counting began.
  • Further, these wild areas are concentrated in about 20 countries. The wilderness areas are often the homes of indigenous communities.
  • Wildlife populations have reduced by 68% since 1970. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the drop has been over 94%.
  • Over a million species are in danger of extinction
  • One of every 3 freshwater species is faced with extinction threat.
  • IUCN has listed 77 animals as extinct in the wild. The organization’s Red List identifies 41,000 species as threatened, which represents 28% of the total species researchers assess.
  • 3 million species in the Amazon are threatened by human-caused ecosystem collapse.
  • Introduced species have significant negative impacts on the environment. The number of alien species has increased as humans move across habitats. Alien species could have dramatic impacts on the species richness of native habitats.

Habitats destruction

Habitat destruction is a leading cause of species decline.

  • Only 25% of the terrestrial land is wilderness area. That is, areas not affected by human footprint. These areas are mainly in Canada, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. Similarly, only 33% of marine-based environments are truly wild. Even more concerning is a study that claims only 3% of the earth has ecological integrity and ‘intactness’).
  • 26% of the planet (ice-free land) is used for livestock, with 33% of cropland for livestock feeds. Animal agriculture is responsible for 17% of greenhouse gas emissions. Global meat consumption has more than doubled since 1990.
  • Land use change, especially for agriculture leads to biodiversity loss and land and water degradation. In 2021 alone, 9.3 million acres of tree land in the tropics were converted to other land uses.

Water Natural resources are not spared too

The cascading effect of Nature degradation

  • Nature degradation has a cascading effect on the environment. Some of these consequences are listed as:

    • Reduction of ecosystem stability: intact ecosystems are more resilient to pressures such as climate change
    • Reduction of ecosystem services: Nature degradation often also reduces the functionality of various ecosystem services such as pollination, water provision, soil formation, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation
    • Species extinction: The loss of one species has a cascading effect on other species as well.
    • Food security: Biodiversity is vital for food security as it provides genetic resources, pollination services, and natural pest control. The destruction of nature may reduce the agricultural productivity.
    • Human health as losing biodiversity may mean losing potential treatment of diseases. Moreover, decline of ecosystem services, such as water and air purification, may increase the exposure to pollutants and pathogens
    • Economy loss: nature supports various industries including tourism, fisheries, and agriculture. The destruction of natural resources has implications for the economic development of a region
    • Loss of cultural values, in particular, of indigenous people.
    • Reduced resilience to climate change
    • Natural disaster resistance: natural disasters such as floods, storms, and landslides are less severe in areas of healthy and diverse ecosystems.

What Can We Do?

The Sustainable Development Goals recommend the following changes to reverse or reduce human impacts on nature:

Conserve wetlands, which are important breeding grounds for 40% of the worlds’ species

  • Fight ocean acidification
  • Manage Foodwaste
  • Manage pollution
  • Protect forests
  • Protect key biodiversity areas
  • Enhance climate finance to help fight climate change

The Good News

Evidence shows that conservation efforts may cause the recovery of some species. For instance, the black tail reef shark in Australia and the Nepalese Tiger have shown remarkable recovery rates by conservation efforts.

Concluding remarks

Humans are depleting the natural resources at an alarming rate. At the current rate, we will need 2.5 earths by 2050 to satisfy the consumption rate. Some of the overexploited natural resources include sand, trees, soils, fossil fuels, and water. I perceive the capitalistic mindset to be the central cause of the degradation and destruction of the environment. The solutions have to be capitalistic too. We know that natural resources have value. It is time to assign value to the resources and ensure that ecosystem services are rightly priced. It shouldn’t end there as well. The money obtained from the PES should be appropriately invested in conservation and the communities undertaking conservation activities. I feel that the environment is at a tipping point. If we don’t rationally manage it, more disasters may await us. Whether it is the effects of climate change or the proliferation of killer diseases. I believe Covid-19 could have been an environmental disaster.

REFERENCE

Most of the references are in the links within the text. Other references include

Humans Destroying Ecosystems: How to measure our impacts on the environment (2023) https://sentientmedia.org/humans-destroying-ecosystems/extirpate

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 15 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, he writes for Silvica on various topics. This blog’s views are personal and do not represent the organizations he is associated with. 

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Carbon Trading as a Strategy to Fight Climate Change http://silvica.site/carbon-trading-markets-in-kenya-2/ Tue, 31 Aug 2021 18:19:54 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1324 Carbon trading Markets in Kenya are gaining recognition

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By David Okul

By definition, a carbon sink refers to anything that absorbs more carbon in the atmosphere than it emits. Conversely, a carbon source is anything that releases more carbon than it absorbs.

Examples of carbon sinks:

Forests

Soils

Oceans

More to follow

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The view in this blog are personal and do not represent the organizations that he is associated with. 

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Payment for Ecosystem Services Definition, Examples, and Criticism http://silvica.site/payment-for-ecosystem-services-definition-examples-and-criticism/ Sat, 31 Jul 2021 19:17:55 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1317 PES in conservation is emerging as a feasible tool

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By David Okul

The natural environment provides a series of benefits to people. According to WWF, the services provided by the ecosystem can be categorized as:

  • Support services- they provide conditions that allow the provision of other services. For instance, photosynthesis support primary production
  • Provision services- these include the goods and services that we directly get from the environment. For instance, food and fiber.
  • Regulation services- The capacity of ecosystems to regulate some processes such as air and water quality
  • Cultural services- Ecosystems are part of the culture and heritage of the people.

However, many of the ecosystem services are seen as market externalities because of their public good character and open-access nature. As such, Neoclassical economics rarely factor in the decision-making of economic actors. Environmental economists champion commodification and valuation to internalize the externalities. Payment for Ecosystem (or Environmental) Services is one of the tools that is commonly used to commodify environmental services.  

PES in Conservation as Tool (Definition)

Government regulation can help maintain some ecosystem services. But that is not always the case. Community members living around vital ecosystems often need the financial incentives to conserve.

In simple terms, PES refers to the various situations where users of an ecosystem service make payments to the providers/protectors of the service. In return, the payments guarantee the flow of these ecosystem services. As such, PES would support the conservation and expansion of ecosystems.

A widely used definition of PES is by Sven Wunder, in which he explains, “A payment for environmental services scheme is a voluntary transaction in which a well-defined environmental service (ES), or a form of land use likely to secure that service is bought by at least one ES buyer from a minimum of one ES provider if and only if the provider continues to supply that service“

Form definition, payments are made on condition of the evidence of provision of an ecosystem service.

The monies accrued from PES support the funding for natural resources management.

In theory, PES schemes could assist in reducing poverty and enhance the conservation of natural systems. They also assist in reducing conflicts between conservationists and landowners that could arise from competing land uses. In short, PES in conservation is gaining traction as a leading strategy.

Examples of PES

There are various types of PES in conservation projects but they could be categorized into four groups:

  • Carbon sequestration and storage- an organization emitting GHGs pays projects that have verified carbon credits.
  • Biodiversity conservation- for instance the establishment of conservancies where communities are paid to maintain land for biodiversity.
  • Watershed protection- downstream water users pay upstream communities for conserving water and ensuring the flow.
  • Landscape beauty- for instance, ecotourism where a tourism operator would pay the local community to maintain wildlife and habitats intact

In practice, many PES projects would offer a variety of services. For instance, a forest conserved for carbon credits may still promote biodiversity conservation, water quality, and landscape integrity.

Many of the active, and successful, PES are funded through the UN REDD+ projects. In Kenya, there have been a considerable number of successful PES projects under this framework.

Comparisons with Polluter Pay Principle

The polluter-pay principle postulates that practices that produce pollution should bear the brunt of managing the resulting environmental and human health impacts. PES is similar to the polluter-pays principle in the sense that it creates positive incentives for environmental conservation and protection.

PES in conservation favors ‘provider gets’ instead of the polluter pay principle. The decision to move towards PES has been influenced by the drawbacks of polluter pay principles. For instance, the direct influence of polluters and the absence of polluters in the areas most affected by pollution are some of the common shortcomings of PPP.

The Criticisms of PES

Granted, PES in conservation has proven as an effective tool especially in developing countries. It has assisted in correcting market failures by pricing conservation efforts. It has also improved the accessibility of cash in rural areas. Regardless, PES as a concept has some drawbacks including:

  • Economic valuation of environmental services is difficult and a costly process. The measurement and valuation of ecosystem services are difficult because of incomplete information and scientific uncertainties in ecosystem functioning.
  • It could lead to ‘commodity fetishism’ where some ecological functions (such as carbon sequestration) are valued over others (like biodiversity conservation).
  • Leakage (or substitution effect, or slippage) can occur where the provision of economic services in one area leads to the increased pressure for conversion in another area.
  • Some PES schemes are vulnerable to corruption.
  • Failure to effectively monitor the schemes
  • Perhaps, the most common criticism of PES emerges from the school of thought that nature value is impossible to quantify. They argue that nature should be conserved for nature’s sake and not monetary returns. The argument is that if the payment stop, then people would stop conserving the environment.
  • REDD+ is an example of PES that has been criticized for its neo-colonialism. The criticism claims that rich countries have exploited their natural capital and are paying poor countries a small fee for their environmental sins.

Concluding remarks

Despite the various criticisms of PES, Silvica finds that the programs are vital for the conservation of the environment. Communities offering ecological services should be rightfully paid for the services they offer. From my experience, the following pointers are vital for an effective PES project:

  • Programs initiated and funded by users tend to be more successful as compared to those run by donors.
  • Blind replication is not advised. A PES project working in one area may not work in another area. There is a need to design projects to the local contexts
  • A clear, and fair, distribution of income is vital for the success of a PES project.
  • Managers of PES projects should work to ensure that they get the best price for their environmental services. Landowners need to view conservation as the most viable land-use option.

Honestly, I also question the sustainability of PES schemes especially in the event where the payments stop for some reason or the other. Additionally, I don’t think by themselves (at least for now) PES can effectively promote the conservation of natural resources. The big question is ‘what are the alternatives?’ I find that telling people to conserve for the sake of conservation is selfish. Why should communities languishing in poverty conserve forests instead of practicing agriculture? It is fairer if they are paid for their conservation efforts. Going forward, PES in conservation should work with other tools to further promote effective environmental management.  

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The view in this blog are personal and do not represent the organizations that he is associated with. 

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The Atmosphere, Greenhouse Gas, Global Warming and Climate Change http://silvica.site/the-atmosphere-greenhouse-gas-global-warming-and-climate-change/ Wed, 30 Jun 2021 19:05:39 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1312 Carbon trading Markets in Kenya are gaining recognition

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By David Okul

We think that a basic understanding of the atmosphere is instrumental in explaining climate change.

Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on earth. Two gases make up the bulk of the earth’s atmosphere: nitrogen (78%), and oxygen (21%). Argon, carbon dioxide and various other trace gases make up the remainder.

Scientists divided the atmosphere into four layers according to temperature: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The temperature drops as we go up through the troposphere, but it rises as we move through the next layer, the stratosphere. The further away from earth, the thinner the atmosphere gets. The figure below shows the different layers

 

TROPOSPHERE
This is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth’s surface, extending up to about 10-15 km above the Earth’s surface. It contains 75% of the atmosphere’s mass. Temperature and pressure drops as you go higher up the troposphere.

The Tropopause: At the very top of the troposphere is the tropopause where the temperature reaches a (stable) minimum. Some scientists call the tropopause a “thermal layer” or “cold trap” because this is a point where rising water vapour cannot go higher because it changes into ice and is trapped. If there is no cold trap, Earth would loose all its water!

Most of what we call weather occurs in the troposphere. The uneven heating of the regions of the troposphere by the Sun causes convection currents and winds. Warm air from Earth’s surface rises and cold air above it rushes in to replace it. When warm air reaches the tropopause, it cannot go higher as the air above it (in the stratosphere) is warmer and lighter … preventing much air convection beyond the tropopause. The tropopause acts like an invisible barrier and is the reason why most clouds form and weather phenomena occur within the troposphere.

The Greenhouse Effect: Heat from the Sun warms the Earth’s surface but most of it is radiated and sent back into space. Water vapour and carbon dioxide in the troposphere trap some of this heat, preventing it from escaping thus keep the Earth warm. This trapping of heat is called the “greenhouse effect”.

However, if there is too much carbon dioxide in the troposphere then it will trap too much heat. Scientists are afraid that the increasing amounts of carbon dioxide would raise the Earth’s surface temperature, bringing significant changes to worldwide weather patterns … shifting in climatic zones and the melting of the polar ice caps, which could raise the level of the world’s oceans. We will discuss more of the greenhouse effect, for now know that it occurs in the troposphere.

 

STRATOSPHERE
This layer lies directly above the troposphere and is about 35 km deep. It extends from about 15 to 50 km above the earths surface.

The stratosphere is warmer at the top than the bottom. The lower portion has a nearly constant temperature with height but in the upper portion the temperature increases with altitude because of absorption of sunlight by ozone. This temperature increase with altitude is the opposite of the situation in the troposphere.

The Ozone Layer: The stratosphere contains a thin layer of ozone molecules (with three oxygen atoms) which forms a protective layer shielding life on Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. But this ozone layer is being depleted, and is getting thinner over Europe, Asia, North American and Antarctica. “Holes” are appearing in the ozone layer.

While green house effect occurs in the troposphere, ozone layer depletion occurs in the stratosphere.

 

MESOSPHERE
Directly above the stratosphere, extending from 50 to 80 km above the Earth’s surface, the mesosphere is a cold layer where the temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude. Here in the mesosphere, the atmosphere is very rarefied nevertheless thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky.

THERMOSPHERE
The thermosphere extends from 80 km above the Earth’s surface to outer space. The temperature is hot and may be as high as thousands of degrees as the few molecules that are present in the thermosphere receive extraordinary large amounts of energy from the Sun. However, the thermosphere would actually feel very cold to us because of the probability that these few molecules will hit our skin and transfer enough energy to cause appreciable heat is extremely low.

Green House Effect

There are two common meanings of the term “greenhouse effect”: There is a “natural” greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth’s climate warm and habitable. There is also the “man-made” greenhouse effect, which is the increase of Earth’s natural greenhouse effect by the addition of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels (mainly petroleum, coal, and natural gas). Carbon dioxide amount in the stratosphere has increased. Compared to a pre-industrial atmospheric concentration of around 270 parts per million (ppm), the average concentration has increased to close to 400 ppm in 2012. This causes the man-made portion of the greenhouse effect.

You can think of greenhouse gases as sort of a “blanket” for infrared radiation — they keep the Earth’s surface and lower layers of the atmosphere warmer, and the upper layers colder, than if the greenhouse gases were not there.  About 80-90% of the Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is due to water vapor and clouds. Most of the rest is due to carbon dioxide, methane, and a few other minor gases. While the remaining gases in the atmosphere (e.g. nitrogen, oxygen) also absorb and emit a small amount of infrared radiation, their radiative effect on temperature is so weak that they can be neglected. While methane is a much more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, there is far less of it in the atmosphere.  It is the carbon dioxide concentration that is increasing, due to the burning of fossil fuels (as well as from clearing rainforest), and it is believed by many scientists to be responsible for the global warming of the last 50 years or more.

Also, the concentration of methane, although extremely small (measured in parts per billion), has also increased in recent decades contributing somewhat to the strengthening of the greenhouse effect. The reasons for this increase, though, remain uncertain.

Global warming

Global warming is the process where the earth’s temperatures are actually getting warmer because of human activities that increase greenhouse gases.  The greenhouses gases (GHG) include carbon dioxide (the major one) and methane. Other minor green house gases are nitrous oxide and water vapor. The gases make the temperature of the earth to become warmer. Carbon dioxide occurs from burning fossil fuels e.g. from vehicles and industries. Fossil fuels include petrol products, diesel etc.

Scientists believe that greater amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and hotter temperatures on Earth, will significantly change the climate across the whole planet. This climate change is already beginning to happen in parts of the world. If you live in a very cold place like Alaska or Greenland, you might think a bit of global warming sounds like a great idea. But climate change doesn’t necessarily mean things will get hotter. Some places will be hotter some of the time, but most places will simply see more erratic and extreme weather. That could mean heavier rainfall on occasions, more snow in some places, longer periods of drought, more storms and hurricanes, and more frequent heat waves. All these can be disastrous!!!

Reducing global warming

  1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paperplastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans

  1. Plant trees

If you have the means to plant a tree, start digging. During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by vehicles, manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

  1. Encourage Others to Conserve

Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

Remember anything that reduces the amount of carbon dioxide will reduce global warming and the greenhouse effect.

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Carbon Trading Markets in Kenya http://silvica.site/carbon-trading-markets-in-kenya/ Mon, 31 May 2021 18:49:23 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1303 Carbon trading Markets in Kenya are gaining recognition

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By David Okul

Human-induced climate change is a major environmental problem in the modern world. The emergence of the Kyoto Protocol and its mechanism of carbon trading is thought to be a viable solution in addressing climate change. Kenya is among the African countries that are keen to explore the opportunities with carbon trade.  

As a developing country, Kenya isn’t required to curb its emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. However, it is eligible to sell carbon credits through the mechanisms identified by the protocol under Article 17. Similarly, Article 6 of the Paris Agreement (that replaced the Kyoto Protocol) recognizes carbon trading as a tool in fighting climate change.

Policy Backing of Carbon Trade in Kenya

Developing countries face legal hurdles in attempts to implement international treaties, such as the Kyoto Protocol. In Kenya, the policy backing for carbon trading can be categorized into international laws and national laws as outlined below:

  1. International laws
  • Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
  • The Paris Agreement: Though controversial, Article 6 of the Paris Agreement outlines the rules for carbon markets and other international cooperation.
  1. National Laws
  • Constitution of Kenya 2010- Article 2(6) outlines the international treaties Kenya is a signatory to. Further, article 42 articulates that Kenyans have a right to a clean environment.
  • Energy Act 2019: indicates the desire to promote the development of clean energy and CDM
  • EMCA: Has no specific mention of carbon trading, but it promotes sustainable development in Kenya.
  • Climate Change Act 2016: the act establishes National Climate Change Council and Climate Change Fund
  • Forestry Conservation and Management Act: Although it doesn’t mention climate change, it recognizes the roles of forests in carbon sequestration
  • National Policy on Carbon Investments and Emissions Trading (2012) by the Ministry of Finance

Carbon trading projects in Kenya

Carbon projects can fall under either the compliance or the voluntary markets. The clean development mechanism (CDM) is the most common compliance market. Under the Paris Agreement, which came into effect on 1st January 2020, CDMs are referred to as Sustainable Development Mechanisms (SDM).

Compliance carbon projects in Kenya

As of March 2021, forty-two CDM mechanisms had been registered in Kenya

The first CDM project in Kenya was the sugarcane bagasse power generation plant at Mumias Sugar Company.

Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KENGEN) has several projects registered with CDM including:

  • Kiambere Hydro Power Project
  • Tana Hydro Power Station Project
  • Ngong Hills Wind Power
  • Olkaria I, II, and IV Geothermal projects

A digital database of registered CDMS can be found in the UNFCCC DM registry

Voluntary Carbon Projects in Kenya

A majority of the voluntary carbon projects in Kenya are in the forestry sector under REDD+. Examples include:

  • Kasigau Corridor REDD Project (Rukinga Sanctuary)
  • Kasigau Corridor REDD Project (Community ranches)
  • Mikoko Pamoja Mangrove
  • International Small Group & Tree Planting Programme (TIST)
  • Mount Kenya Small Scale Reforestation
  • Forest Again (Kakamega Forest)
  • Chyulu Hills REDD+ Project

Apart from forestry, energy-efficient cookstoves and water filters projects also have a number of carbon trading initiatives. Additionally, agricultural and soil organic carbon projects are also gaining traction.

  • Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project
  • NRT carbon project

It Makes Sense for Kenya to develop its Carbon Trade

A comprehensive list of REDD+ projects in Kenya can be found in the International Database of REDD+ Projects and Programmes

Similarly, some companies in Kenya are voluntarily measuring and offsetting their carbon. For instance, in 2011, Kenya Airways launched a carbon offset program for its passengers from geothermal projects in Kenya.

A significant proportion of Kenya is natural and some is conserved. It would make sense to quantify the environmental services provided by the various lands. Consequently, more areas legible for carbon trading should be identified to further increase the benefit of conservation to local communities.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The view in this blog are personal and do not represent the organizations that he is associated with. 

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An Overview of the Environment, Ecology and Nutrient Cycles http://silvica.site/an-overview-of-the-environment-ecology-and-nutrient-cycles/ Sun, 18 Apr 2021 08:38:50 +0000 http://silvica.site/?p=1280 The basics of environmental education includes the definition of ecosystem, environment and ecology

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By David Okul

Environmental education is a process of learning about the environment to work with it and not destroy it. It is the purpose of this blog post to introduce basic concepts of environmental education to the readers. The definitions of environment and ecology will help you understand the concept of the environment.

What is the Environment?

The environment is all the surrounding of an organism.

 

Better still; the environment can be defined as a combination of different systems. These systems include;

The physical environment e.g. atmosphere, water, and soil

The biological environment e.g. plants and animals

The social environment i.e. humans

 

An organism-environment has two parts which include

Non-living parts such as temperature. The non-living part is also called the abiotic component

The living part includes plants, animals, and microorganisms. The living part is also called the biotic component.

Definition of Ecology

Ecology as a science attempts to explain ‘how nature works’. The term was derived from two Greek words: Oikos meaning “house and Logos, meaning, “study of’. The coining of the term was done in 1869 by German biologist Ernst Haeckel.

As such, ecology is the study of living things in their home or environment: all the external conditions and factors, living and non-living that affect an organism. In the words of Miller (1991), ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment. Note that the keyword is interactions. It means that exchanges occur within the environment

Ecology was of practical interest early in human history.  In primitive societies, the people seem to understand their environment and work with the forces of plants and animals for their survival. Civilization tends to use tools, such as fire, to modify the natural environment. Technological advances have made some of us oblivious of the role of nature in the survival of mankind. Many of us forget our continuing dependence on the natural resources for air, water, and indirectly, food, recreation, waste disposal, etc.

Biosphere and the Ecosphere

The earth has several major parts that play a role in sustaining life. You are part of what ecologists call the “biosphere” – the living and dead organisms found near the earth surface in parts of the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (soil)

The biosphere is that part of the earth’s surface and its immediate atmosphere that is inhabited by living organisms. The biosphere fulfills three (3) primary functions for living things;

  1. a) It provides a place where living things complete their life cycle (a habitat)
  2. b) It provides a stable habitat within which the evolution of species can occur.
  3. c) Powered by solar energy, it forms a self-regenerating system that supports life.

The biosphere represents a complex series of interrelationships between the soil, rock, water, and air and the living organisms contained in it.

Energy Flow and Matters Recycling

Do you know wonder what keeps humans (you, me), and most other organisms alive on this planet? To answer this question, you need to understand the fundamental processes, which govern life on planet earth. It will interest you to know life (yours inclusive) on earth depends largely on two fundamental processes presented below:

  1. a) The one-way flow of energy from the sun which is the major source of energy for ecosystems. In short, the sun is either directly or indirectly a source of energy for all life on earth.
  2. b) The recycling of chemicals required by living organisms through parts of the ecosphere. Important cycles include carbon, phosphorous, nitrogen, water, and oxygen cycles.

A basic in environmental education; you will recall that the source of the energy, which sustains life on earth, is the sun. Solar energy lights and warms the earth and supplies the energy used by green plants to synthesize the compounds, which keep them alive and serve as food for almost all other organisms. Solar energy also controls the recycling of key chemicals and drives the climate and weather, which distribute heat and freshwater over the earth’s surface.

Cause and Effect in the environment and ecology

As you are probably aware from the laws of physics, every action causes a reaction. Everything that we do set off a chain of events that extend far beyond our control. Negative action will result in a negative reaction while positive action will result in a positive reaction. For instance, pollution, a negative, will fill the air with substances that harm people’s lungs, rise in the air to cause global warming, falls back as acid rain harming vegetation, and contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer. On the other hand, simple acts such as recycling can save trees from being cut down unnecessarily. Even small actions in the protection of the environment are significant. So, always look into doing positive things for the environment, they do count!

The difference between environment and ecology

Many people tend to confuse ecology with the environment. But they are different concepts. While the environment is concerned with surroundings, ecology attempts to explain how the environment works (that is, the interactions between and among the biotic and abiotic components).

Ecologies attempt to explain the interactions among the five levels of organization of matter (organisms, population, communities, ecosystem, and the biosphere)

The ecosystem is a subset of ecology that focuses on a particular environment. All ecosystems come together to form one gigantic ecosystem called the biosphere.

All in all, we note that ecology focuses on the relationships between organisms and the components of their environment.

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on  environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The view in this blog are personal and do not represent the organizations that he is associated with. 

The post An Overview of the Environment, Ecology and Nutrient Cycles appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

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