You searched for wildlife - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development

Environmental Externalities: Research Paper

Davidokul — Thu, 29 Feb 2024 17:16:11 +0000

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

Our production and consumption systems are causing externalities. In this paper, we discuss some of the pertinent concepts on environmental externalities.

INTRODUCTION

Brief overview of environmental externalities

Environmental externalities refer to the unintended and often unaccounted-for impacts that economic activities have on the environment, affecting parties not directly involved in those activities. These externalities can be positive or negative and encompass a wide range of environmental issues. The concept is rooted in market failures, as the costs or benefits associated with these external effects are not reflected in the prices of goods and services in the marketplace.

Key Characteristics:

Positive and Negative Externalities: Positive externalities result in beneficial effects on the environment, such as ecosystem restoration or biodiversity conservation. Negative externalities, on the other hand, lead to harmful consequences, including pollution, deforestation, and habitat destruction.
Scope of Impact: Environmental externalities can affect air, water, soil, biodiversity, and ecosystems. The scale of impact can range from local to global, with some externalities contributing to broader issues like climate change.
Market Failures: Traditional markets often fail to account for the environmental costs associated with production and As a result, economic agents may not fully consider the long-term consequences of their actions, leading to inefficient resource allocation.
Interconnectedness: Environmental externalities often manifest in interconnected and complex ways. For instance, air pollution can contribute to climate change, affecting weather patterns and ecosystems globally.

Examples of Environmental Externalities:

Air Pollution: Emissions from industries and vehicles contribute to air pollution, affecting human health, degrading air quality, and contributing to climate
Water Pollution: Agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and improper waste disposal can contaminate water sources, leading to aquatic ecosystem degradation and risks to human health.
Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture and logging can result in loss of biodiversity, disrupt ecosystems, and contribute to carbon emissions.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming and climate change.

Mitigation Strategies:

Regulation and Policy: Governments implement environmental regulations, such as emission standards and pollution controls, to address externalities and promote sustainable practices.
Economic Instruments: Taxes, subsidies, and cap-and-trade systems provide economic incentives for businesses and individuals to internalize environmental costs and adopt greener practices.
Technological Innovation: Advances in technology, such as renewable energy sources and eco-friendly production methods, play a crucial role in mitigating environmental

Importance of addressing environmental externalities

Addressing environmental externalities is of paramount importance for several reasons, reflecting the interconnectedness between human activities, the economy, and the health of the planet. The significance of addressing environmental externalities can be understood through the following key points:

Ecosystem Health and Biodiversity:

Preservation of Ecosystems: Environmental externalities often contribute to habitat destruction, deforestation, and pollution, leading to the degradation of ecosystems. Addressing externalities is crucial for preserving biodiversity and maintaining the health of natural systems.

Human Health and Well-being:

Air and Water Quality: Pollution resulting from environmental externalities, such as air and water pollution, directly impacts human health. Addressing these externalities is essential for ensuring clean air and water, reducing the prevalence of respiratory diseases and waterborne illnesses.

Long-term Economic Sustainability:

Resource Conservation: Many environmental externalities involve the inefficient use of natural resources. Addressing these externalities promotes sustainable resource management, ensuring the availability of essential resources for future generations.

Climate Change Mitigation:

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Environmental externalities, particularly those related to the burning of fossil fuels, contribute significantly to climate change. Addressing these externalities is critical for mitigating global warming and its associated impacts, such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and disruptions to ecosystems.

Social Equity and Justice:

Disproportionate Impact: Environmental externalities often impact marginalized communities and vulnerable populations more severely. Addressing externalities is essential for promoting environmental justice and ensuring that the burdens and benefits of environmental actions are equitably distributed.

Regulatory Compliance and Legal Frameworks:

Ensuring Compliance: Addressing environmental externalities is essential for complying with environmental regulations and legal frameworks. Businesses and individuals must internalize the costs associated with their activities to avoid legal repercussions and contribute to a sustainable future.

Innovation and Technological Advancement:

Stimulating Green Technologies: The need to address environmental externalities drives innovation in green technologies and sustainable practices. This, in turn, fosters economic growth, job creation, and the development of industries focused on environmental sustainability.

Global Cooperation and Diplomacy:

International Collaboration: Many environmental challenges, such as air and water pollution or climate change, require global cooperation. Addressing environmental externalities fosters international collaboration and diplomatic efforts to find collective solutions to shared environmental problems.

Public Awareness and Education:

Informed Decision-Making: Addressing environmental externalities involves raising public awareness and promoting environmental education. Informed individuals are more likely to make sustainable choices and support policies that contribute to environmental well-being.

Thesis statement outlining the scope and purpose of the paper.

This research paper seeks to comprehensively explore the concept of environmental externalities, investigating their diverse manifestations, economic implications, and the imperative of addressing them. Through an examination of case studies, economic analyses, and policy responses, the paper aims to underscore the significance of mitigating environmental externalities for the preservation of ecosystems, human health, economic sustainability, and the collective well-being of current and future generations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition and classification of environmental externalities

Environmental externalities refer to the unintended side effects or consequences of human activities on the environment, affecting parties not directly involved in those activities. These externalities can be either positive or negative and arise when the costs or benefits of an action are not fully borne by the individuals or businesses responsible for that action. In other words, environmental externalities represent the spillover effects of economic activities on the broader ecosystem, often leading to outcomes that are not accounted for in market transactions.

Classification of Environmental Externalities:

Positive Externalities:

Definition: Positive environmental externalities occur when the benefits of an economic activity extend beyond the individuals or entities directly involved.

Example: Planting trees not only benefits the individual or organization planting them but also improves air quality and provides habitat for wildlife, creating positive externalities.

Negative Externalities:

Definition: Negative environmental externalities occur when the costs of an economic activity are borne by parties not directly engaged in that activity.

Example: Industrial pollution affecting nearby communities or water contamination from agricultural runoff are instances of negative externalities.

Air Pollution:

Definition: Activities such as industrial production and transportation release pollutants into the air, affecting air quality and human health.

Example: Emission of particulate matter and gases from factories leading to respiratory problems in neighboring communities.

Water Pollution:

Definition: The contamination of water bodies by pollutants from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, or improper waste disposal.

Example: Discharge of chemicals from a factory into a nearby river, impacting aquatic life and potentially affecting downstream communities.

Deforestation:

Definition: The clearing of forests, often for agriculture or logging, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems.

Example: Clear-cutting of forests for timber or to make way for agricultural activities, leading to habitat destruction and soil erosion.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

Definition: The release of gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, contributing to global warming and climate change.

Example: Burning fossil fuels for energy, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and contributing to the greenhouse effect.

Historical context and evolution of the concept

The concept of externalities, including environmental externalities, has roots in economic thought and policy discussions dating back to the 19th century. Over time, the understanding of how economic activities impact the environment and society has evolved. Here is a simplified overview of the historical context and evolution:

Classical Economics (18th-19th centuries):

Adam Smith (1776) and David Ricardo (1817) do not explicitly address environmental concerns in relation to public goods provision. One plausible explanation is that, during that time, industrialization and urbanization had not advanced to a stage where intellectuals acknowledged the significant impact on the environment. Additionally, environmental matters were not yet considered within the scope of topics that economists were anticipated to scrutinize as part of social development.

During the classical economic era, thinkers like Adam Smith and David Ricardo focused on individual self-interest and the idea that markets, if left to operate freely, would lead to optimal outcomes. However, their theories did not explicitly address the unintended consequences of economic activities on the broader society or the environment.

Pigouvian Economics (20th century):

In the early 20th century, economist Arthur Pigou introduced the concept of externalities to address market failures. He argued that when the actions of individuals or businesses impose costs or benefits on others not involved in the market transaction, markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently. Pigou proposed government intervention through taxes or subsidies to internalize externalities.

Tragedy of the Commons (1968):

Garrett Hardin’s influential essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” highlighted the overuse and degradation of shared resources when individuals act in their self-interest. Hardin’s work underscored the need for collective action and regulation to address environmental challenges.

Coase Theorem (1960):

Ronald Coase proposed the Coase Theorem, suggesting that if property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, private parties can negotiate and find efficient solutions to externalities without government intervention. This theorem contributed to the understanding of how markets and property rights influence environmental outcomes.

Environmental Movement (Late 20th century):

The rise of the environmental movement in the mid-20th century drew attention to pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem degradation. Increased public awareness and advocacy led to the establishment of environmental regulations and agencies in many countries.

Sustainable Development (1980s-present):

The concept of sustainable development gained prominence in the 1980s, emphasizing the need to balance economic growth with environmental protection and social equity. International agreements, such as the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, highlighted the interconnectedness of economic, social, and environmental goals.

Integration into Economic Models (Modern era):

Environmental externalities are now integrated into economic models, policy discussions, and sustainability frameworks. Concepts like the triple bottom line (considering economic, social, and environmental factors) emphasize a more holistic approach to decision-making.

Throughout this historical evolution, the concept of environmental externalities has transitioned from a niche economic idea to a central theme in discussions about sustainable development and responsible resource management. The ongoing challenges related to climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution continue to underscore the importance of addressing environmental externalities in contemporary policy and decision-making.

Key studies and research on environmental externalities

Several key studies and research efforts have significantly contributed to our understanding of environmental externalities. These studies have explored the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of externalities, providing valuable insights into their causes, consequences, and potential mitigation strategies. Here are a few notable examples:

“The Economics of Welfare” by Arthur Pigou (1920):

Arthur Pigou’s work laid the foundation for the concept of externalities. In “The Economics of Welfare,” Pigou introduced the idea that when the actions of individuals or businesses impose costs or benefits on others, markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently. He proposed government intervention to address these externalities, a concept now known as the Pigovian tax.

“The Tragedy of the Commons” by Garrett Hardin (1968):

Garrett Hardin’s influential essay discussed the overuse and depletion of common resources, highlighting the concept of the tragedy of the commons. Hardin argued that individuals acting in their self-interest could lead to the degradation of shared resources, emphasizing the need for collective action and regulation.

Coase Theorem by Ronald Coase (1960):

Ronald Coase’s paper “The Problem of Social Cost” introduced the Coase Theorem, challenging the traditional view that externalities required government intervention. Coase argued that, under certain conditions, private parties could negotiate and find efficient solutions to externalities without government involvement.

“Pollution, Prices, and Public Policy” by Thomas Crocker (1966):

Thomas Crocker’s paper is a seminal work in the development of emissions trading systems. Crocker discussed how creating a market for pollution permits could provide an economically efficient solution to environmental externalities associated with pollution.

“The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change” (2006):

The Stern Review, led by economist Sir Nicholas Stern, examined the economic impacts of climate change. The report emphasized the importance of considering the external costs of carbon emissions and highlighted the economic rationale for taking action to mitigate climate change.

“The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)” (2008):

TEEB is a comprehensive study initiated by the United Nations that assesses the economic value of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The report emphasizes the often-unaccounted- for economic benefits provided by nature and highlights the externalities associated with biodiversity loss.

“The Dasgupta Review: The Economics of Biodiversity” (2021):

Commissioned by the UK government, the Dasgupta Review explores the economic implications of biodiversity loss. Authored by Sir Partha Dasgupta, the report emphasizes the need to incorporate nature’s value into economic decision-making and addresses the externalities arising from the neglect of biodiversity.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Air pollution: Sources, impacts, and mitigation strategies

Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances, such as particulate matter, gases, and chemicals, in the Earth’s atmosphere in concentrations that can be detrimental to human health, the environment, and overall well-being.

Sources of Air Pollution:

Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy production releases pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate
Vehicle Emissions: Combustion engines emit pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and particulate matter.
Industrial Activities: Factories and industrial processes release pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).
Agricultural Practices: Agricultural activities contribute to air pollution through ammonia (NH3) emissions and the release of agricultural dust.

Waste Management: Improper disposal and treatment of waste can result in the release of pollutants into the air.
1. Impacts of Air Pollution:
Health Effects: Air pollution can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, exacerbate existing conditions, and cause premature deaths.
Environmental Degradation: Pollutants can harm ecosystems, soil quality, and water bodies, impacting biodiversity and the health of plants and animals.
Climate Change: Greenhouse gas emissions from air pollution contribute to global warming, affecting weather patterns and ecosystems.
Ozone Depletion: Certain pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer, leading to increased UV radiation reaching the Earth’s
1. Mitigation Strategies:
Transition to Clean Energy: Encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, reduces reliance on fossil fuels and decreases air pollution.
Improved Transportation: Promoting public transportation, electric vehicles, and sustainable urban planning can reduce vehicle emissions.
Stringent Emission Standards: Implementing and enforcing strict emission standards for industries and vehicles helps limit the release of harmful pollutants.
Afforestation and Green Spaces: Planting trees and creating green spaces can help absorb pollutants and improve air quality.
Waste Management Practices: Proper waste disposal and recycling reduce the release of pollutants from landfills and incineration.
Regulatory Measures: Governments can enact and enforce air quality regulations to limit emissions from various sources and protect public health.
Public Awareness and Education: Informing the public about the sources and impacts of air pollution encourages responsible behavior and supports community-driven efforts to improve air quality.
Technological Innovation: Investing in and adopting cleaner technologies, such as emission control devices and pollution abatement technologies, can contribute to reducing air pollution.

Water pollution: Causes, consequences, and regulatory measures

Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and other aquatic systems, by the introduction of harmful substances or pollutants.

Causes of Water Pollution:
- Industrial Discharges: Factories and industrial facilities often release pollutants, including heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins, into water bodies.
- Agricultural Runoff: The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture can lead to runoff, carrying pollutants such as nutrients and chemicals into rivers and lakes.
- Wastewater Disposal: Improper disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater can introduce pollutants, including pathogens and chemicals, into water systems.
- Oil Spills: Accidental or intentional releases of oil into water bodies can have severe environmental consequences, affecting aquatic life and ecosystems.
- Plastic Pollution: Improper disposal and accumulation of plastic waste in water bodies pose a significant threat to marine life and ecosystems.
- Urbanization and Stormwater Runoff: Increased urban development leads to increased impervious surfaces, causing stormwater runoff to carry pollutants into water bodies.
Consequences of Water Pollution:
- Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems: Water pollution can harm fish, plants, and other aquatic organisms, disrupting ecosystems and reducing biodiversity.
- Health Risks: Contaminated water can pose risks to human health, leading to waterborne diseases and long-term health issues.
- Economic Impact: Water pollution can negatively impact industries such as fisheries and tourism, affecting local economies.
- Drinking Water Contamination: Polluted water sources can compromise the quality of drinking water, endangering public health.
- Loss of Recreational Opportunities: Polluted water bodies may become unsuitable for recreational activities, impacting the quality of life for nearby communities.
Regulatory Measures to Address Water Pollution:
- Water Quality Standards: Governments set water quality standards that define acceptable pollutant levels in water These standards serve as benchmarks for monitoring and regulatory compliance.
- Pollution Prevention Plans: Industries may be required to implement pollution prevention plans to reduce the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.

Wastewater Treatment: Establishing and enforcing regulations on the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater helps reduce pollutant levels before
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): Before initiating projects, authorities may require EIAs to assess potential impacts on water quality and ecosystems, ensuring sustainable development.
Erosion Control Measures: Implementing erosion control measures, such as vegetative buffers and sediment control structures, helps prevent soil runoff and reduces sedimentation in water bodies.
Bans and Restrictions: Prohibiting or restricting the use of certain pollutants, such as specific chemicals or materials, helps prevent their introduction into water systems.
Community Engagement and Education: Raising awareness and involving local communities in water protection efforts fosters a sense of responsibility and encourages sustainable practices.

Deforestation: Economic drivers, ecological consequences, and conservation efforts

Economic Drivers of Deforestation:
- Agriculture: Expansion of agricultural activities, especially for cash crops and livestock, is a significant driver of Large-scale farming often leads to the clearing of vast forested areas.
- Logging and Timber Production: The demand for wood and timber products contributes to deforestation, as logging operations clear forests for commercial purposes.
- Infrastructure Development: Road construction, urbanization, and other infrastructure projects can result in deforestation as forests are cleared to make way for roads, buildings, and other developments.
- Mining: Extractive industries, such as mining for minerals and oil, often require clearing large areas of forests, leading to deforestation.
- Fuelwood Collection: In many developing regions, reliance on wood for fuel contributes to deforestation as communities harvest trees for cooking and heating purposes.
Ecological Consequences of Deforestation:
- Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation leads to the destruction of habitats, resulting in the loss of plant and animal species. Many species may become endangered or extinct.
- Disruption of Ecosystems: Forest ecosystems are complex and interconnected. Deforestation disrupts these systems, affecting nutrient cycles, water flow, and ecological
- Climate Change: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide. Deforestation releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate

Soil Erosion: The removal of trees exposes soil to erosion. Without the stabilizing influence of tree roots, erosion can lead to degraded soil quality and reduced agricultural
Disruption of Water Cycles: Forests play a crucial role in regulating water cycles. Deforestation can alter precipitation patterns, leading to changes in local and regional

Conservation Efforts:
- Protected Areas and Reserves: Establishing and effectively managing protected areas and reserves helps preserve critical ecosystems and biodiversity.
- Reforestation and Afforestation: Planting trees in deforested areas (reforestation) or areas that were not previously forested (afforestation) helps restore ecosystems and mitigate the impacts of deforestation.
- Sustainable Logging Practices: Implementing sustainable logging practices, such as selective logging and reduced-impact logging, can minimize the ecological impact of timber production.
- Community-Based Conservation: Involving local communities in conservation efforts helps build support for protecting forests and ensures that conservation measures are
- Corporate Responsibility: Encouraging responsible business practices, such as sustainable sourcing of timber and agricultural products, promotes conservation and reduces the economic drivers of deforestation.
- Policy and Legislation: Governments can enact and enforce laws that regulate land use, logging, and agricultural practices to prevent deforestation.
- International Collaboration: Global initiatives and partnerships between countries, NGOs, and businesses are crucial for addressing deforestation, especially in regions with high biodiversity and extensive forest cover.

Greenhouse gas emissions: Trends, consequences, and the role of renewable energy

Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Global Increase: Over the past century, human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
- Dominant Sources: The primary sources of GHG emissions include the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy, deforestation, agricultural practices, and certain industrial

Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is the most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted by human activities, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels and land-use changes.
Methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Agriculture, livestock, and industrial activities contribute to elevated levels of methane and nitrous oxide emissions, both potent greenhouse gases.

Consequences of Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Climate Change: The increased concentration of greenhouse gases traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to global warming and alterations in climate patterns.
- Rising Sea Levels: Melting ice caps and glaciers, primarily caused by higher temperatures, contributes to rising sea levels, posing risks to coastal communities and
- Extreme Weather Events: Changes in climate patterns result in more frequent and severe weather events, including hurricanes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves.
- Impact on Ecosystems: Altered temperatures and precipitation patterns can disrupt ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, migration patterns, and the health of various
- Ocean Acidification: The absorption of excess CO2 by oceans leads to increased acidity, negatively impacting marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells.
Role of Renewable Energy in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Decarbonization of Energy: Transitioning from fossil fuel-based energy sources to renewable energy, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, reduces reliance on carbon-intensive fuels, lowering emissions.
- Solar Energy: Solar power harnesses sunlight to generate electricity, offering a clean and abundant energy source with minimal environmental impact.
- Wind Energy: Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity, providing a sustainable alternative to fossil fuel-based power generation.
- Hydropower: Generating electricity from moving water helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the environmental impact of traditional energy sources.
- Geothermal Energy: Utilizing heat from the Earth’s interior for power generation offers a continuous and low-emission energy source.
- Bioenergy: Biomass and biofuels derived from organic materials can serve as renewable alternatives to traditional fossil fuels.

Renewable Energy Advantages in Emission Reduction:

Reduced Carbon Footprint: Renewable energy sources produce little to no direct greenhouse gas emissions during operation, helping to mitigate climate change.

Energy Independence: Utilizing renewable energy reduces dependence on finite fossil fuel resources, promoting energy security.
Job Creation: The renewable energy sector supports job creation and economic growth, fostering a transition to a more sustainable and resilient economy.

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Market failures and the role of externalities

Understanding Market Failures:

Market failures occur when the allocation of goods and services by a free market is inefficient, leading to outcomes that do not maximize societal welfare. In a perfectly competitive market, prices reflect both the private costs and benefits of production and consumption. However, market failures arise when certain conditions are not met, resulting in misallocations of resources.

Causes of Market Failures:

Externalities: The presence of externalities, where the actions of producers or consumers impose costs or benefits on third parties not involved in the transaction.

Public Goods: Goods that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning individuals cannot be excluded from consuming them, and one person’s consumption does not diminish the availability to others.

Imperfect Competition: Monopolies, oligopolies, or monopolistic competition can lead to market power and inefficient outcomes.

Information Asymmetry: When one party in a transaction has more information than the other, leading to adverse selection or moral hazard.

Incomplete Markets: When certain goods or services are not traded in the market, leading to underproduction or overproduction.

Role of Externalities in Market Failures:

Externalities play a significant role in causing market failures. Externalities occur when the production or consumption of goods and services affect third parties who are not part of the market transaction. They can be positive, such as the benefits of education spillovers, or negative, such as pollution from industrial production.

Types of Externalities:

Negative Externalities: These occur when the actions of producers or consumers impose costs on third parties not involved in the transaction. For example, pollution from factories negatively impacts the health of nearby residents.

Positive Externalities: Positive externalities occur when the actions of producers or consumers create benefits for third parties. For instance, investments in education not only benefit the individual but also society through increased productivity and innovation.

Consequences of Externalities:

Externalities can lead to inefficient resource allocation, as market prices do not fully account for the external costs or benefits associated with production or consumption. Negative externalities can result in overproduction of goods with harmful effects, while positive externalities may lead to underinvestment in beneficial activities.

Addressing Externalities:

To address externalities and mitigate market failures, policymakers can employ various interventions, including:

Pigouvian Taxes: Taxes levied on producers or consumers to internalize the external costs associated with their actions.

Subsidies: Government subsidies provided to encourage activities that generate positive externalities.

Regulations: Imposing regulations or standards to limit or mitigate the negative impacts of externalities.

Cap-and-Trade Systems: Market-based mechanisms that set a cap on total emissions and allow for trading of emission permits.

Importance of Addressing Externalities:

Addressing externalities is crucial for achieving efficient resource allocation, promoting social welfare, and ensuring environmental sustainability. By internalizing external costs and benefits, policymakers can align private incentives with societal goals, leading to more efficient and equitable outcomes in the market. Failure to address externalities can result in market distortions, environmental degradation, and negative impacts on human health and well-being.

Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and Coase theorem

1. Pigouvian Taxation:

Definition: Pigouvian taxation, named after economist Arthur Pigou, involves levying taxes on activities that generate negative externalities to internalize the external costs.

Mechanism: The tax is imposed on producers or consumers to align private costs with social costs, thereby reducing the quantity of the harmful activity to the socially optimal level.

Rationale: In the presence of negative externalities, market prices do not fully reflect the true costs of production or consumption, leading to overproduction or overconsumption of the harmful good or service. By imposing a tax equal to the external cost per unit, the government internalizes the externality and incentivizes producers or consumers to account for the social costs in their decision-making.

Example: Carbon taxes are a common application of Pigouvian taxation, where a tax is levied on the carbon content of fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.

2. Coase Theorem:

Definition: The Coase theorem, formulated by economist Ronald Coase, suggests that in the absence of transaction costs and under certain conditions, parties can negotiate and arrive at efficient solutions to externalities privately, without government intervention.

Mechanism: According to the Coase theorem, if property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, parties affected by externalities can bargain with one another to reach mutually beneficial agreements. The efficient outcome is independent of the initial allocation of property rights.

Rationale: The Coase theorem challenges the conventional view that externalities always require government intervention to correct. Instead, it highlights the potential for private bargaining and voluntary agreements to internalize externalities efficiently.

Example: In the case of pollution, if property rights are clearly defined and transaction costs are low, affected parties (e.g., polluters and affected communities) can negotiate compensation or mitigation measures to address the externality without government intervention.

Comparison:

Pigouvian Taxation vs. Coase Theorem: While Pigouvian taxation relies on government intervention to internalize externalities through taxes, the Coase theorem suggests that private bargaining can achieve the same outcome under certain conditions. Pigouvian taxation is often favored when transaction costs are high or property rights are difficult to define, whereas the Coase theorem may be applicable in situations where private negotiations are feasible and efficient.

Conclusion:

Both Pigouvian taxation and the Coase theorem offer theoretical frameworks for addressing externalities and achieving efficient outcomes in the presence of market failures. While Pigouvian taxation provides a straightforward mechanism for internalizing external costs through government intervention, the Coase theorem highlights the potential for private bargaining and voluntary agreements to address externalities efficiently. Ultimately, the choice between these approaches depends on the specific context, including the nature of the externality, transaction costs, and the feasibility of private negotiations.

Challenges in valuing environmental goods and services

Non-Market Nature: Many environmental goods and services, such as clean air, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, do not have explicit market prices. In the absence of market transactions, valuing these goods and services becomes challenging, as there is no direct monetary exchange to determine their worth.

Complexity and Interconnectedness: Environmental systems are complex and interconnected, with numerous variables and feedback loops. Valuing individual environmental goods or services in isolation may overlook their broader ecological context and the interactions between different components of the environment.

Temporal and Spatial Variability: Environmental goods and services often exhibit temporal and spatial variability, making their valuation more complex. Valuation methods must account for fluctuations in ecosystem conditions over time and differences in environmental attributes across geographic regions.

Subjectivity and Uncertainty: Valuing environmental goods and services involves subjective judgments and value assessments. Different stakeholders may have varying preferences, perceptions, and priorities regarding the value of environmental resources, leading to disagreements and conflicts. Uncertainty surrounding future environmental conditions, ecological dynamics, and human behaviors further complicates valuation efforts.

Methodological Challenges: Existing valuation methods, such as contingent valuation, hedonic pricing, and ecosystem services valuation, have limitations and assumptions that can affect the accuracy and reliability of estimates. Methodological choices, including study design, sample selection, and model specification, can influence valuation outcomes and interpretations.

Distributional Considerations: Valuing environmental goods and services raises distributional issues, as benefits and costs may accrue unevenly across different groups within society.

Ensuring equitable distribution of environmental benefits and addressing environmental justice concerns requires careful consideration in valuation studies. Externalities and Spillover Effects: Environmental goods and services often exhibit spillover effects, where the benefits or costs extend beyond the immediate users or beneficiaries. Valuation efforts must account for these externalities and spillover effects to capture the full social value of environmental resources.

Inadequate Data and Information: Limited availability of data and information on environmental attributes, ecosystem functions, and human preferences can hinder valuation efforts. Improving data collection, monitoring systems, and research infrastructure is essential for enhancing the accuracy and reliability of environmental valuation.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Emerging trends in environmental policy and technology

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:

Increasing focus on ambitious climate targets, including net-zero emissions and climate resilience strategies. Emphasis on renewable energy deployment, energy efficiency, and low- carbon technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Integration of climate considerations into all aspects of policymaking, from transportation and agriculture to urban planning and infrastructure development.

Circular Economy and Waste Management:

Shift towards circular economy models aimed at minimizing waste generation and maximizing resource efficiency. Promotion of recycling, reuse, and extended producer responsibility to reduce environmental impacts and conserve resources. Exploration of innovative technologies, such as advanced recycling methods and material recovery, to create closed-loop systems.

Biodiversity Conservation and Restoration:

Recognition of the importance of biodiversity for ecosystem health, resilience, and human well- being. Implementation of biodiversity conservation measures, including protected areas, habitat restoration, and species recovery programs. Integration of biodiversity considerations into land- use planning, agricultural practices, and natural resource management.

Technology and Innovation:

Harnessing technology and innovation to drive sustainable development and address environmental challenges. Advances in renewable energy, clean transportation, and smart infrastructure to reduce environmental footprints and enhance efficiency. Integration of digital tools, data analytics, and remote sensing technologies to monitor environmental changes, improve decision-making, and enhance environmental governance.

Recommendations for policymakers, businesses, and individuals/civil society.

Addressing environmental challenges requires proactive measures and collaborative efforts from policymakers, businesses, and civil society. By adopting holistic approaches to environmental management, embracing sustainability principles, and working together towards common goals, we can create a more resilient and sustainable future for all.

Policymakers: Implement robust environmental regulations that internalize externalities and incentivize sustainable practices. Adopt a holistic approach to environmental management, considering the interconnectedness of ecosystems, social systems, and economic activities. Promote stakeholder engagement and participatory decision-making processes to ensure diverse perspectives are considered in policy Invest in research and innovation to support the development and implementation of effective environmental policies and technologies. Prioritize collaboration and international cooperation to address global environmental challenges and achieve collective goals.

Businesses: Integrate sustainability into corporate strategies, operations, and supply chains, considering environmental impacts throughout the product lifecycle. Implement environmental management systems and set measurable targets for reducing emissions, waste, and resource Invest in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and green technologies to reduce environmental footprints and enhance competitiveness. Engage with stakeholders, including customers, employees, and communities, to build trust and support for sustainability initiatives. Embrace transparency and accountability in reporting environmental performance, adhering to global standards and best practices.
Civil Society: Advocate for strong environmental policies and regulations that prioritize the protection of natural resources and public health. Raise awareness and mobilize public support for sustainable practices, conservation efforts, and climate Hold governments and businesses accountable for their environmental commitments through activism, public campaigns, and legal action if necessary. Foster collaboration and partnerships between civil society organizations, academia, and other stakeholders to leverage collective expertise and resources. Support grassroots initiatives and community-led projects that promote environmental stewardship and resilience at the local level.

CONCLUSION

Summary of key findings

Environmental externalities are unintended consequences of economic activities that affect ecosystems, human health, and quality of life. They can be positive (beneficial) or negative (harmful), with examples including pollution, habitat destruction, and ecosystem services.

Environmental externalities lead to market failures, as the costs or benefits of actions are not fully accounted for in market transactions. Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and the Coase theorem offer insights into addressing externalities through taxes, subsidies, and property rights.

Negative externalities have significant consequences on ecosystems, public health, and economic well-being, resulting in social burdens and economic costs. Case studies illustrate the real-world effects of externalities, including air pollution, deforestation, and water contamination.

Political barriers, vested interests, and uncertainty in valuing environmental goods pose challenges to implementing effective policy measures. Distributional impacts and equity considerations require careful attention to ensure fairness and social justice in environmental policymaking.

Regulatory measures, including pollution taxes and emissions standards, play a crucial role in internalizing externalities and promoting sustainable practices. Market-based instruments, such as cap-and-trade systems and subsidies for green technologies, offer innovative solutions to incentivize environmental stewardship. International cooperation and agreements are essential for addressing global environmental challenges and fostering collective action.

Individuals, communities, businesses, and governments are called upon to raise awareness, adopt sustainable practices, advocate for policy change, and promote corporate responsibility.

Collaboration and proactive measures are emphasized as essential for addressing environmental externalities and building a more resilient and sustainable future.

Call to action for sustainable practices and policies.

Environmental externalities pose significant threats to ecosystems, public health, and economic prosperity. To safeguard our planet and ensure a sustainable future, urgent action is needed at all levels of society. Here’s a call to action outlining steps that individuals, communities, businesses, and governments can take to address environmental externalities.

Raise Awareness: Educate yourself and others about environmental externalities, their impacts, and the importance of addressing Use social media, community events, and educational programs to raise awareness and mobilize support for environmental protection.
Adopt Sustainable Practices: Reduce your carbon footprint by conserving energy, using public transportation, and embracing renewable energy sources. Practice sustainable consumption habits, such as reducing waste, recycling, and supporting eco-friendly products and businesses.

Advocate for Policy Change: Engage with policymakers and advocate for stronger environmental regulations, including emissions standards, pollution taxes, and conservation Join or support environmental organizations and initiatives that promote sustainable policies and advocate for the protection of natural resources.

Promote Corporate Responsibility: Encourage businesses to adopt sustainable practices, reduce emissions, and invest in renewable energy technologies. Support companies that prioritize environmental stewardship and transparency in their operations.
Invest in Innovation: Invest in research and development of clean technologies, renewable energy solutions, and sustainable agricultural Support innovation hubs, startups, and initiatives focused on addressing environmental challenges and promoting green entrepreneurship.
Foster International Cooperation: Advocate for international agreements and partnerships to address global environmental issues, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and ocean conservation. Support efforts to aid and resources to developing countries for implementing sustainable development initiatives.

Hold Decision-Makers Accountable: Hold elected officials and policymakers accountable for their environmental commitments and ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into decision-making processes. Vote for candidates who prioritize environmental protection and advocate for policies that address environmental
Engage in Community Action: Participate in local environmental initiatives, such as tree planting, beach cleanups, and community gardens. Work with neighbors, community organizations, and local governments to address environmental challenges and promote sustainability at the grassroots level.

REFERENCES

Baumol and Oates (Reference Baumol and Oates1988).

“Environmental Economics: Theory, Application, and Policy” by Barry C. Field and Martha K. Field (Pearson, 2014)

Aunan K. (1996). “Exposure-Response Functions for Health Effects of Air Pollutants Based on Epidemiological Findings.” Risk Analysis 16(5): 693-709.

Richard B. Stewart. Controlling environmental risks through economic incentives.

https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ccrVAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA85&dq=Bri ef+overview+of+environmental+externalities&ots=up8iSpm6Ef&sig=cpWXlqbQXLy6WVF3g LvMZ_Jr6YA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Brief%20overview%20of%20environmental%20ext ernalities&f=false

Dascalu, C., Caraiani, C., Iuliana Lungu, C., Colceag, F. and Raluca Guse, G. (2010), “The externalities in social environmental accounting”, International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1108/18347641011023252

The Positive Effects of Coronavirus on the Air Pollution Globally

May 24, 2020

The Environmental Benefits of the Coronavirus (COVID 19)

April 29, 2020

Nine Reasons why Plastics are regarded as the Bad Boys of Global Pollution

July 19, 2019

Ntangusa Moonyoi is a Bachelor of Commerce at Strathmore University Kenya.

The post Environmental Externalities: Research Paper appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Some Statistics on How Man is Destroying Nature

Davidokul — Tue, 26 Sep 2023 15:46:52 +0000

By David Okul

The natural environment is fundamental to humans’ survival on Earth. It also contributes to our economy and culture. Unfortunately, our ways of life are destructive to the ecosystem.

It is easy to overlook nature and think that everything will always be there. However, multiple evidence shows that nature can be destroyed.

Humans destroy the environment in several ways including:

Over-extracting natural resources
Pollution of air, soils, and water
Destroying landscapes

The reasons for the destruction are pretty simple. Our overpopulation and overconsumption are leading to more urbanization, agriculture, and entertainment.

Read an article highlighting the major global environmental issues, mainly caused by humans.

Collapse of Species

The bullet points below illustrate how biodiversity is shifting. Links in the bullet points redirect to articles across websites proving the statements.

Livestock accounts for 62% of global mammalian biomass while humans account for 34%. Only 4% of the biomass represents wildlife species. The estimate is a startling reminder of the reduced biodiversity.
Poultry accounts for 61% of the world’s birds’ biomass. Some estimates claim that poultry biomass could be as much as 80%. In contrast, 4-10% of bird species are farmed as poultry.
Over 12% of the known species are faced with the danger of extinction. Over 30% of land and 75% of freshwater resources are utilized for food production.
Lost over a third of tigers and elephant populations since counting began.
Further, these wild areas are concentrated in about 20 countries. The wilderness areas are often the homes of indigenous communities.
Wildlife populations have reduced by 68% since 1970. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the drop has been over 94%.
Over a million species are in danger of extinction
One of every 3 freshwater species is faced with extinction threat.
IUCN has listed 77 animals as extinct in the wild. The organization’s Red List identifies 41,000 species as threatened, which represents 28% of the total species researchers assess.
3 million species in the Amazon are threatened by human-caused ecosystem collapse.
Introduced species have significant negative impacts on the environment. The number of alien species has increased as humans move across habitats. Alien species could have dramatic impacts on the species richness of native habitats.

Habitats destruction

Habitat destruction is a leading cause of species decline.

Only 25% of the terrestrial land is wilderness area. That is, areas not affected by human footprint. These areas are mainly in Canada, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. Similarly, only 33% of marine-based environments are truly wild. Even more concerning is a study that claims only 3% of the earth has ecological integrity and ‘intactness’).
26% of the planet (ice-free land) is used for livestock, with 33% of cropland for livestock feeds. Animal agriculture is responsible for 17% of greenhouse gas emissions. Global meat consumption has more than doubled since 1990.
Land use change, especially for agriculture leads to biodiversity loss and land and water degradation. In 2021 alone, 9.3 million acres of tree land in the tropics were converted to other land uses.

Water Natural resources are not spared too

Global heating and ocean acidification are causing the disappearance of coral reefs. The Guardian reports that children born in the 2020s may be the last generation to see the coral reefs in all its glory. Corals are the undersea forests, but they are declining at a faster rate than the Amazon.
Over 90% of wetlands have been destroyed since the 1700s. more https://theconversation.com/earth-has-lost-one-fifth-of-its-wetlands-since-1700-but-most-could-still-be-saved-199362
About 77% of the rivers over 1000 km no longer flow freely
Excessive commercial fishing (through trawling) is causing the creation of dead zones in the oceans too.

The cascading effect of Nature degradation

Nature degradation has a cascading effect on the environment. Some of these consequences are listed as:
- Reduction of ecosystem stability: intact ecosystems are more resilient to pressures such as climate change
- Reduction of ecosystem services: Nature degradation often also reduces the functionality of various ecosystem services such as pollination, water provision, soil formation, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation
- Species extinction: The loss of one species has a cascading effect on other species as well.
- Food security: Biodiversity is vital for food security as it provides genetic resources, pollination services, and natural pest control. The destruction of nature may reduce the agricultural productivity.
- Human health as losing biodiversity may mean losing potential treatment of diseases. Moreover, decline of ecosystem services, such as water and air purification, may increase the exposure to pollutants and pathogens
- Economy loss: nature supports various industries including tourism, fisheries, and agriculture. The destruction of natural resources has implications for the economic development of a region
- Loss of cultural values, in particular, of indigenous people.
- Reduced resilience to climate change
- Natural disaster resistance: natural disasters such as floods, storms, and landslides are less severe in areas of healthy and diverse ecosystems.

What Can We Do?

The Sustainable Development Goals recommend the following changes to reverse or reduce human impacts on nature:

Conserve wetlands, which are important breeding grounds for 40% of the worlds’ species

Fight ocean acidification
Manage Foodwaste
Manage pollution
Protect forests
Protect key biodiversity areas
Enhance climate finance to help fight climate change

The Good News

Evidence shows that conservation efforts may cause the recovery of some species. For instance, the black tail reef shark in Australia and the Nepalese Tiger have shown remarkable recovery rates by conservation efforts.

Concluding remarks

Humans are depleting the natural resources at an alarming rate. At the current rate, we will need 2.5 earths by 2050 to satisfy the consumption rate. Some of the overexploited natural resources include sand, trees, soils, fossil fuels, and water. I perceive the capitalistic mindset to be the central cause of the degradation and destruction of the environment. The solutions have to be capitalistic too. We know that natural resources have value. It is time to assign value to the resources and ensure that ecosystem services are rightly priced. It shouldn’t end there as well. The money obtained from the PES should be appropriately invested in conservation and the communities undertaking conservation activities. I feel that the environment is at a tipping point. If we don’t rationally manage it, more disasters may await us. Whether it is the effects of climate change or the proliferation of killer diseases. I believe Covid-19 could have been an environmental disaster.

REFERENCE

Most of the references are in the links within the text. Other references include

Humans Destroying Ecosystems: How to measure our impacts on the environment (2023) https://sentientmedia.org/humans-destroying-ecosystems/extirpate

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 15 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, he writes for Silvica on various topics. This blog’s views are personal and do not represent the organizations he is associated with.

The post Some Statistics on How Man is Destroying Nature appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Natural Resources Definition, Features, and Classification

Davidokul — Mon, 25 Oct 2021 07:40:47 +0000

By David Okul

Natural resources definition can be a simple or complex concept. The fact is that all products that we use are based on natural resources. For instance, plastic may be an obvious man-made product but it has its origins in natural resources including natural gas, oil, and plants. These natural resources are refined into ethane and propane to create different polymers.

A simple natural resources definition would define natural resources as ‘things that occur naturally and are of value to humans’. A more acceptable definition of natural resources comes from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that defines it as ‘assets occurring in nature that can be used for economic production or consumption.’

It is important for a resource to have value to humans. Value means that human beings should be able to use the resources.

But there is a problem with the definition. It would mean that since air is not used in economic production or consumption, it would not be a natural resource. Although the economic value of air is not obvious it is the basis of life on earth.

Technical natural resources definition

A more technical explanation defines natural resources by what they are not. It is common for environmentalists to define natural resources by what it is not. In this respect, a natural resource is not:

Goods subjected to some processing, e.g automobiles
Products not extracted from the natural environment. E.g., food from agriculture is cultivated rather than extracted.

Further, the technical definition would involve a look into the features/characteristics of natural resources. Five features are pertinent:

Exhaustibility
Uneven distribution in different countries: For instance over 80% of all known oil reserves are within 3 countries
Externalities such as pollution that arise from extraction
Volatility: variation in the pricing
Dominance: many countries rely on a narrow range of natural resources for their export

A more detailed explanation of the features of natural resources is explained in the World Trade Report

Natural resources are thought of as natural capital different from human and physical capital.

In natural resources definition, it is vital to distinguish between natural resources as factors of production and goods that can be traded. As factors of production, natural resources can form the basis for various economic sectors. For instance, unique natural scenery may spur tourism. In contrast, some natural resources such as minerals can be traded in the international market in their raw form.

The earth’s physical environment provides the life support system and all the resources we use. The physical environment has four spheres including the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Classification of natural resources

Just like there are varied ways of defining natural resources, there are different ways to classify the resources including:

The origin categorizes resources into biotic and abiotic. Biotic resources would be obtained from living things while abiotic resources originate from non-organic materials.
Stage of development: This approach categorizes natural resources as potential, actual, reserve, and stock resources.
Renewability: is the most commonly used method of classification and is the focus of the subsequent discussion

The air we breathe and the light we get from the sun are available in unlimited quantity, at least in theory. In contrast, resources like coal, forest, and petroleum can be depleted. The stock of these resources is limited because they keep reducing day by day.

Based on renewability, resources can be classified into:

Inexhaustible
Exhaustible resources

Inexhaustible Resources

The resources which cannot be exhausted by human consumption and other uses are called inexhaustible resources or perpetual resources. Examples include energy sources like solar radiation, wind power, water power (flowing streams) and tidal power, and substances like sand, clay, air, water in oceans, etc.

They cannot be exhausted! For example, the sun will always be there even if everybody in the world puts up solar panels! The push for renewable energy, especially solar and the wind is based on the premise that these resources’ availability is unlimited.

Exhaustible Resources

On the other hand, there are some resources, which are available in limited quantities and are going to be exhausted (finished) as a result of continuous use. For instance, the stock of coal on the earth is limited and one day there will be no more coal available on earth. Petroleum is another important exhaustible resource. The exhaustible resources can be classified to:

Renewable
Non-renewable resources

Renewable Resources

Some of the exhaustible resources are naturally regenerated after consumption and are known as renewable resources. E.g. living beings (both animals and plants) reproduce and can thus, replace the dying or killed individuals. It is important to note that if the use of these resources is a greater rate of regeneration, they may also get totally exhausted/ finished. Some examples of renewable resources are freshwater, fertile soils, forest (yielding wood and other products), vegetation, wildlife, etc.

Non-renewable Resources

The resources, which cannot be replaced after use, are known as non-renewable resources. These include minerals (copper, iron, etc.) fossil fuels (coal, oil, etc.).

Sometimes, unsustainable use of renewable resources may turn them into non-renewables. For instance, many conservationists categorize endangered wildlife species (rare plants and animals) as non-renewable.

Concluding Remarks

In essence, natural resources are found virtually everywhere on earth. However, scholars often include the concept of ‘value’ in defining natural resources. Resources exist independently of humans but can be defined as natural resources when they are of value to humans. Adjectives such as ‘critical’ or ‘keystone’ are increasingly being used to describe some natural resources or capital to show that some resources are more valuable than others.

All goods we use will either need natural resources (e.g foods that require minerals from soil) or will embody natural resources (e.g. a car will contain iron ore). The problem is that with economic development and population growth, more and more natural resources are being extracted. This unsustainable resource use is the cause of some of the major environmental problems of today.

Read more about natural resources in this book

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on environmental projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The view in this blog are personal and do not represent the organizations that he is associated with.

The post Natural Resources Definition, Features, and Classification appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Definition, Characteristics, Principles, and Examples of Community-Based Tourism (CBT)

Davidokul — Fri, 24 Sep 2021 09:26:19 +0000

By David Okul

By definition, a community refers to a group of people with shared responsibilities and the tendency of making decisions by representative bodies.

CBT definition is diverse as various quarters define the term differently. A common feature in the definitions is the observation that travelers connect with the local communities.

Silvica defines CBT (Community-Based Tourism) as a facet of sustainable tourism that is dependent on resources that are either owned or managed by the community or those that are owned by communal stakeholders. It also focuses on tourism activities carried out by individuals within a community which provide returns to the community for the sustainable use of communal resources.

Characteristics of a Functioning Community-Based Tourism Organizations

To further enhance CBT definition, we have identified 4 main characteristics of community-based tourism organizations, initiatives, or enterprises:

They are led and owned by the community. This means that local people play a leading role in the enterprise and the assets belong to the community. The resources can therefore not be sold off for private financial gains. This also means that their boards are accountable to the communities, mainly because the directors are representatives of the communities;
They are self-sustaining and able to generate profits to be reinvested and/or distributed among the community. Their financial stability arises from their business practice. Even if they receive support from a third party at the beginning, they can sustain themselves after a while;
They are sustainable which means that they equally tackle environmental and social problems in their area. They are also called social enterprises as they can generate many jobs in the community. They can also return benefits to the community beyond creating direct employment for individuals. For instance, they can offer scholarships or subsidized health care.
Have some cultural heritage. The main selling point of CBT is that it allows visitors to immerse themselves in unique cultural experiences of the hosts

Other characteristics of Community-Based Tourism Enterprises are that they:

Allow people to develop as economic decision-makers;
Can devise strategies to cope with competition and can be developed as part of the local development plan, including hybrid models such as collaboration between governments or NGOs with citizens;
Add value to agricultural produce;
Allocate surplus to community projects and other spin-off community enterprises; and,
Provide purposeful employment and cash income for marginalized individuals and actively engage citizens.

Products offered by CBT

Activities for a CBTO will depend on the cultural and natural assets that are at the disposal of the community. Products offered by CBTO can be based on cultural-social resources, natural resources, and others.

Cultural-Social Resource

Cultural resources could be tangible and non-tangible

Tangible cultural resources include things like ancient settlements, rock art, historical buildings, monuments, birthplaces of famous people, religious buildings, cemeteries, painting, traditional instruments, jewelry, and various arts and craft
Intangible cultural resources include religion, language, rituals, customs, festivals, games, dances, folklore, cooking, and etymology

Natural Resources

They could be based on landforms, biodiversity, and knowledge

Landforms attractions include features such as lakes, rivers, forests, springs, volcanos, nature trails, conservancies, protected areas, caves, mountains, orchards, etc.
Biodiversity attraction includes wildlife, rare species, plants, and fishes
Knowledge of natural resources includes special info on animals and special ways of making dishes.

Other CBT resources

There are various other ways in which CBT can create innovative products. For instance, nightlife, ballooning, boating, rock climbing, mountain biking, horse riding, water slides, malls, casinos, kayaking, etc. Most of the activities are based on recreation and entertainment facilities.

Principles of Community-Based Tourism

Silvica has identified 10 principles for community-based tourism based on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) CBT standards. These principles include:

Community Involvement & Participation
Partnerships with Relevant Stakeholders
Ensuring that the CBTO complies with the legal requirements of its jurisdiction
Social Well–Being and Human Dignity
Encouraging Fair and Transparent Benefit Sharing Mechanism
Promoting Linkages to the Local Economy
Practicing Respect to the Local Culture and Traditions
Promoting Natural Resource Management and sustainable consumption and production (SCP) principles
Enhancing the Quality of Visitors Experience
Promoting Good Governance, Transparency, and Accountability

Ideally, existing, and emerging CBTs should base their operations around the 10 principles that would promote the development of sustainable community-based tourism organizations.

Examples of Community-based Tourism

Based on the CBT definition, there are various examples of community-based tourism:

In Vietnam, a community in Cam Thanh is protecting the marine ecosystem while providing culturally rich tours.
In Kenya, Il Ingwesi Community has established an ecolodge that provides a quality safari experience and authentic immersion in the Maasai community.
In Uganda, Buhoma Community Rest Camp offers accommodation and opportunities to interact with Batwa people. It also offers community-based gorilla trekking tours.
Jamaica, which is regarded as the home of community-based tourism, has various successful community-based tourism
In Bolivia, the government has invested over US$ 200 million to develop various community-based tourism products.
Community-based tourism is not limited to developing countries. In Europe, various community-based tourism projects are being implemented.

Promote CBTIs in your travel

From CBT definition, community involvement is vital. On the surface, community-based tourism tends to encourage the connection between the traveler and the host. But it has additional benefits including promoting the conservation of culture and the environment. Additionally, it provides income opportunities for the community members. So, in your next travel, support community-based tourism projects near you.

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

The post Definition, Characteristics, Principles, and Examples of Community-Based Tourism (CBT) appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Payment for Ecosystem Services Definition, Examples, and Criticism

Davidokul — Sat, 31 Jul 2021 19:17:55 +0000

By David Okul

The natural environment provides a series of benefits to people. According to WWF, the services provided by the ecosystem can be categorized as:

Support services- they provide conditions that allow the provision of other services. For instance, photosynthesis support primary production
Provision services- these include the goods and services that we directly get from the environment. For instance, food and fiber.
Regulation services- The capacity of ecosystems to regulate some processes such as air and water quality
Cultural services- Ecosystems are part of the culture and heritage of the people.

However, many of the ecosystem services are seen as market externalities because of their public good character and open-access nature. As such, Neoclassical economics rarely factor in the decision-making of economic actors. Environmental economists champion commodification and valuation to internalize the externalities. Payment for Ecosystem (or Environmental) Services is one of the tools that is commonly used to commodify environmental services.

PES in Conservation as Tool (Definition)

Government regulation can help maintain some ecosystem services. But that is not always the case. Community members living around vital ecosystems often need the financial incentives to conserve.

In simple terms, PES refers to the various situations where users of an ecosystem service make payments to the providers/protectors of the service. In return, the payments guarantee the flow of these ecosystem services. As such, PES would support the conservation and expansion of ecosystems.

A widely used definition of PES is by Sven Wunder, in which he explains, “A payment for environmental services scheme is a voluntary transaction in which a well-defined environmental service (ES), or a form of land use likely to secure that service is bought by at least one ES buyer from a minimum of one ES provider if and only if the provider continues to supply that service“

Form definition, payments are made on condition of the evidence of provision of an ecosystem service.

The monies accrued from PES support the funding for natural resources management.

In theory, PES schemes could assist in reducing poverty and enhance the conservation of natural systems. They also assist in reducing conflicts between conservationists and landowners that could arise from competing land uses. In short, PES in conservation is gaining traction as a leading strategy.

Examples of PES

There are various types of PES in conservation projects but they could be categorized into four groups:

Carbon sequestration and storage- an organization emitting GHGs pays projects that have verified carbon credits.
Biodiversity conservation- for instance the establishment of conservancies where communities are paid to maintain land for biodiversity.
Watershed protection- downstream water users pay upstream communities for conserving water and ensuring the flow.
Landscape beauty- for instance, ecotourism where a tourism operator would pay the local community to maintain wildlife and habitats intact

In practice, many PES projects would offer a variety of services. For instance, a forest conserved for carbon credits may still promote biodiversity conservation, water quality, and landscape integrity.

Many of the active, and successful, PES are funded through the UN REDD+ projects. In Kenya, there have been a considerable number of successful PES projects under this framework.

Comparisons with Polluter Pay Principle

The polluter-pay principle postulates that practices that produce pollution should bear the brunt of managing the resulting environmental and human health impacts. PES is similar to the polluter-pays principle in the sense that it creates positive incentives for environmental conservation and protection.

PES in conservation favors ‘provider gets’ instead of the polluter pay principle. The decision to move towards PES has been influenced by the drawbacks of polluter pay principles. For instance, the direct influence of polluters and the absence of polluters in the areas most affected by pollution are some of the common shortcomings of PPP.

The Criticisms of PES

Granted, PES in conservation has proven as an effective tool especially in developing countries. It has assisted in correcting market failures by pricing conservation efforts. It has also improved the accessibility of cash in rural areas. Regardless, PES as a concept has some drawbacks including:

Economic valuation of environmental services is difficult and a costly process. The measurement and valuation of ecosystem services are difficult because of incomplete information and scientific uncertainties in ecosystem functioning.
It could lead to ‘commodity fetishism’ where some ecological functions (such as carbon sequestration) are valued over others (like biodiversity conservation).
Leakage (or substitution effect, or slippage) can occur where the provision of economic services in one area leads to the increased pressure for conversion in another area.
Some PES schemes are vulnerable to corruption.
Failure to effectively monitor the schemes
Perhaps, the most common criticism of PES emerges from the school of thought that nature value is impossible to quantify. They argue that nature should be conserved for nature’s sake and not monetary returns. The argument is that if the payment stop, then people would stop conserving the environment.
REDD+ is an example of PES that has been criticized for its neo-colonialism. The criticism claims that rich countries have exploited their natural capital and are paying poor countries a small fee for their environmental sins.

Concluding remarks

Despite the various criticisms of PES, Silvica finds that the programs are vital for the conservation of the environment. Communities offering ecological services should be rightfully paid for the services they offer. From my experience, the following pointers are vital for an effective PES project:

Programs initiated and funded by users tend to be more successful as compared to those run by donors.
Blind replication is not advised. A PES project working in one area may not work in another area. There is a need to design projects to the local contexts
A clear, and fair, distribution of income is vital for the success of a PES project.
Managers of PES projects should work to ensure that they get the best price for their environmental services. Landowners need to view conservation as the most viable land-use option.

Honestly, I also question the sustainability of PES schemes especially in the event where the payments stop for some reason or the other. Additionally, I don’t think by themselves (at least for now) PES can effectively promote the conservation of natural resources. The big question is ‘what are the alternatives?’ I find that telling people to conserve for the sake of conservation is selfish. Why should communities languishing in poverty conserve forests instead of practicing agriculture? It is fairer if they are paid for their conservation efforts. Going forward, PES in conservation should work with other tools to further promote effective environmental management.

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

The post Payment for Ecosystem Services Definition, Examples, and Criticism appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Endangered Species in Kenya: Plants and Animals

Davidokul — Sat, 30 Jan 2021 05:05:00 +0000

By David Okul

Endangered species in Kenya are part of the biodiversity that provides a variety of environmental goods and services. The biodiversity assets in Kenya include 7,000 plants, 25,000 invertebrates, 1100 birds, 315 mammals, 191 reptiles, 180 freshwater fish, 692 fish, 88 amphibians, and about 2 000 species of fungi and bacteria (NEMA, 2009). In this article, we list some of the endangered species in Kenya. Please note that the listing is based primarily on a State of the Environment report by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya’s state agency responsible for the management of the environment. Additionally, some of the listing (especially mammals) follows the sixth schedule in the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 2013. Although we focus on Kenya, most of the species listed are also endangered in other East Africa countries.

Endangered Plant Species in Kenya

Various plant species are endangered because of overexploitation, deforestation, and degradation. In East Africa, clearing native vegetation types for agriculture and settlement is still a threat to biodiversity. Apart from commercial value, some plants are overexploited because of their medicinal values. The threatened plant species in Kenya include the

Bauhinia mombassae: The species is under intense pressure from elephants at the Kenyan coast.
Brucea macrocarpa: A shrub found in central Kenya in swampy areas around Thika and Kamiti. Expansion of land for agriculture is a major threat
Voi cycad (Encephalartos kisambo); Species also threatened by agriculture and charcoal production. The good news is that the species is relatively easy to grow and is prized in landscaping.
East African sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata); has been overexploited because of its oil that is valuable in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. As such, it is illegal to cut, uproot or export sandalwood
Red stinkwood (Prunus africana): Its timber is prized because it is heavy, straight-grained, and strong. However, the tree is overexploited because of its medicinal properties as its bark and leaves are harvested. The species is protected under Appendix II of CITES.
Meru oak (Vitex keniensis): The IUCN listed endangered species is valued for its timber. For a high-value indigenous tree, the species is relatively fast-growing.
Camphor (Ocotea kenyensis): The vulnerable species are found in various places in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is threatened by the loss of habitats.
Parasol tree (Polyscias kikuyuensis): The tree is endemic to Kenya, but is threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation for timber and medicine.
Rat aloe (Aloe ballyi): The tall poisonous succulent is among the few poisonous aloes. It is native to Kenya (Taita Hills) and Tanzania. The rare succulent is threatened by land clearance and is called rat aloe because of the smell of its leaves.
Tana river poplar (Populus ilicifolia). Only species of genus Populus that is native to Africa, and endemic to a small section of Kenya and Tanzania. Was used by Pokomos for canoe making. Some of the tree is found in Nyando River (Near Ahero), but it is probably planted there. Relatively fast-growing.
Combretum tenuipetiolatum: IUCN lists it as ‘critically endangered, and can only be found in Rabai forest
Euphorbia tanaensis: Another critically endangered species found in Witu Forest, where you can find about 20 mature trees.
African Olive (Olea europea ssp africana) is endangered in the East African region because of its beautiful wood and medicinal properties.
Knobwood (Zanthoxylum chalybeum) is critically endangered in Kenya and threatened in the East African region, also because of its medicinal value.

Despite this list, the Kenya Wildlife and Conservation Act only consider sandalwood and Voi cycad as endangered. Some of the other species are listed as vulnerable in the Act.

Endangered animal Species in Kenya

Threatened Mammal Species in Kenya

Animals include mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and amphibians, and in each group, there are endangered species in Kenya. According to the Kenya Wildlife Act, the following mammals are listed as critically endangered

Aders’ duiker (Cephalophus adersi)
Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): Between 1960 and 1965, the population of black rhinos in Africa dropped by a staggering 98% to below 2,500 individuals. Because of concerted conservation efforts, their numbers have increased to around 5,500 individuals in recent years.
Hirola (Beatragus hunter)
Eastern red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus)
Tana crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus)
Roan antelope (Hippotragus equines)
Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger)

Species listed as endangered include:

African elephant (Loxodonta Africana): But populations are increasing because of concerted conservation efforts
African lion (Panthera leo): In the last 2 years, population has reduced by 43%. It is estimated that around 20,000 lions roam the wildlands of Africa
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus): Need huge spaces to survive as they find it hard to compete with other predators
Striped hyaena (Hyaena Hyaena)
Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii)
Leopard (Panthera pardus)
White rhino (Ceratotherium simunz simum)
Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi)
African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
Giant thicket rat (Grammomys gigas)
Barbour’s vlei rat (Otomys barbourin)
Mount elgon vlei rat (Otomys jacksoni)
Golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus)
Eastern bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci)
Lelwel hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
Rothschild’s giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi)
Coalfish whale (Balaenoptera borealis)
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)

Some of the animals like lions, leopards, and elephants are listed as ‘vulnerable’ in the IUCN list but as endangered in the Kenya Wildlife Conservation and Management Act because of their immense value in conservation and tourism in the country. Furthermore, the act lists some vulnerable species to include the common hyena, greater kudu, lesser kudu, hippopotamus, and springhare among others. Although not mentioned in the act, there is a serious concern in the conservation world in East Africa over the population of species such as giraffes and pangolins.

Amphibians and reptiles are also diminishing across East Africa

Some endangered species in Kenya of amphibians and reptiles include:

Du toit’s torrent frog (Petropedetes dutoiti)
Shimba hills banana frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus)
Shimba hills reed frog (Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus)
Forest frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus)
Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas)
Olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
Rock python (Python sebae): They are listed in CITES Appendix II, meaning that they are not threatened with extinction, but may become so soon, unless trade is strictly controlled.

Fish Threatened with Extinction in Kenya

Fish are a major source of protein worldwide. However, they are threatened with extinction because of overfishing, eutrophication, and the introduction of invasive species like Nile Perch. Some of the fish listed by KWS as endangered in Kenya include:

Singidia tilapia (Oreochromis esculentus):
Lake Chala tilapia (Oreochromis hunteri):
Jipe tilapia (Oreochromis jipe):
Victoria tilapia (Oreochromis variabilis):
Rainbow sheller (Ptyochromis sp.):
Lake Victoria deepwater catfish (Xenoclarias eupogon):
Montane dancing-jewel (Platycypha amboniensis):
Magadi tilapia (Alcolapia alcalicus):
Giant wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus):
Victoria stonebasher (Marcusenius victoriae).

From amphibians to cycads, it is apparent that biodiversity in East Africa faces a serious threat, as some species are staring at extinction. The endangered species of Kenya listed here show that the region has remarkable biodiversity. It is up to us to conserve it, such that the future generations could also enjoy the varied life forms.

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

The post Endangered Species in Kenya: Plants and Animals appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Invasive species in Kenya: Plants and Animals

Davidokul — Thu, 28 Jan 2021 14:42:56 +0000

By David Okul

Like in many parts of the world, invasive species in Kenya are a threat to the native wildlife and vegetation. Consequently, human health and economies become a risk from the invasive species as a bulk of the commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities depend on a healthy native system.

But how can we define if a species is invasive or not? In general terms, invasive species refer to species not native to the ecosystem and causes harm to the environment, ecosystem, or human health. The species are also likely to reproduce quickly or spread aggressively. Although most invasive species come from different countries, it is not often the case. A species may be invasive even it’s native to a different region in the same country.

Whether intentionally or by accident, humans are the major spreaders of invasive species. Intentional in the sense that some are released pets (e.g. Burmese pythons in the everglades), while some are intentionally planted (such as landscaping plants). Under the Wildlife and Conservation Act of Kenya (2013), various species are classified as invasive. This article will outline these species.

Not Many Mammals are listed as Invasive in Africa

The only mammal listed as invasive in Kenya is the Coypu rat (Myocastor coypus). The large semi-aquatic rodent is native to South America but is nominated by IUCN as one of the “100 of the World’s Worst invaders.” Today, the Coypu rat is found in every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Initially, they were kept for their fur, but many farmers learned that its fur is not premium in the market like a rabbit, minx, or fox furs. The rats eat a lot of vegetation and reproduce fast. A breeding pair can create 16,000 individuals within three years. Crazy numbers! But the species has a gestation period of 130 days resulting in a litter of 4-6 young ones on average, and a female can reproduce 48 hours after giving birth. Also, consider that the nutria can eat vegetation 25% of its body weight. It is no wonder that the Kenyan government is cautious about it.

Nevertheless, some mammals should be a concern for Kenya and across Africa because of their invasive nature. Examples of invasive mammals in Africa include feral cats, goats, house rats, and European rabbits. Feral cats are particularly nasty to any ecosystem as they kill any species they can. All in all, the impacts of invasive mammals are not as severe when compared to plants.

Invasive plant species in Kenya

Various plant species are known to be invasive in Africa. They take up pastureland and some are persistent weeds in cultivation lands. Regardless, all invasive plant species tend to limit the production of indigenous species.

Mathenge (Velvet mesquite) (Prosopis juliflora): It is perhaps the most notable invasive woody species in Kenya and some parts of Africa. In Kenya, it was introduced in the Baringo region, but it did spread to other parts. It spread aggressively leading to the loss of pasture. Among its other negative impacts include punctures to tyres, reduced biodiversity, loss of agricultural land, injury to livestock, and blocking challenges.
Tickberry (Lantana camara): Lantana camara is native to South America but graders have moved it across the tropics, mainly because of its showy flowers, which produce berries. The berries are eaten by birds that further disperse the seeds. The species push native plants because livestock cannot its leaves or stems.
Nile Cabbage (Pistia stratiotes): the plant was introduced to Africa from South America. It is grown as an ornamental and often used to provide cover for fish in aquariums or ponds. However, its devastating effects in East Africa outpower its positive effects. It has clogged water bodies and irrigation channels.
Yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana): The plant is naturalized in many parts of Africa as it is commonly used for fencing. As the plant is poisonous to humans and most animals, it tends to spread fast.
Mauritius thorn (Caesalpinia decapelata): The woody plant has its origin in Southern and Eastern Asia but has been naturalized in East Africa. Because of its thorns and fast growth, it is often used as a live fence in Africa as it can prevent invasion from notorious animals, like baboons. Regardless, the species chokes native vegetation. It has also been reported to clogs water infrastructure.
Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium): The origins of the noxious weed are relatively unknown, but it is suspected to be native to the Americas region. The species has spread to most parts of the world. In Africa, it is common in roadsides, agricultural lands, disturbed areas, and riverbanks. The plant is used as medicine and narcotics. It is invasive because of its tendency to spread fast in agricultural areas reducing crop yields.
Yellow bells (Tecoma stans): The plant is native to the Americas and has spread over the world because of its ornamental appeal. However, its seeds are dispersed by the wind at a rapid rate leading to weed-like tendencies in riparian areas and roadsides.
Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana): It is native to Mexico and Texas but has spread as a weed to most tropical areas of the world. It is poisonous to livestock but deaths are few because it is not readily eaten. Its seed remains dormant for a long time making its control difficult.
Opuntia exaltata Long spine cactus
Opuntia ficus– indica Sweet prickly pear
Opuntia vulgaris ” Drooping prickly pear: Most of the Opuntia species were introduced to Kenya by the British as ornamental plants. The plant thrives in arid conditions suppressing grass and other indigenous vegetation. The cacti have sweet fruits, but they are dangerous to livestock because the spine can cause injury to animals feeding. Regardless, animals like baboons and elephants help the spread of the plant as they feed on the seeds and help disperse. A species of opuntia was considered Australia’s worst weed before a series of biological agents were deployed to fight it.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Water hyacinth has numerous negative effects on Lake Victoria including obstructing waterways, the spread of water-borne diseases, and increase of water loss through evapotranspiration.

Acacia reficiens is a species that is native to Kenya but is treated as an invasive species in some areas. For instance, the species has colonized former grasslands in parts of northern Kenya. As such, local NGOs with the community are cutting down the trees and planting grasses. Similarly, Acacia mellifera in southern parts of Kenya is also not desirable by the pastoralists.

In some areas of Africa, a list of invasive plants also includes the Acacia wattles (especially Acacia mearnsii), Eucalyptus species (probably because of its negative impacts on wetlands), and castor oil plant (Ricinus communis).

Other animals listed as invasive in Kenya

Apart from mammals, other animals including birds, reptiles, and anthropoids are classified as invasive. The following section outlines them

Birds

Speckled Mousebird (Colius striatus):
Ring-necked pheasant (Phasialus colchicus)
Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)
Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus)
Common Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis)
Rose-ringed (Ring-necked) Parakeet (Psittacula krameria): It is a common ornamental bird across the world. However, it is known to escape cages and free itself from captivity. The species is recognized as invasive in most parts of Africa.
Common (European) Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
Rock Dove (Feral pigeon) (Columba livia): It is thought that the first rock doves came to Africa from Dutch settlers in South Africa in 1652. They are a menace to the agricultural landscapes.
Beautiful fruit dove (Ptilinopus pulchellus)
Black-chinned fruit dove (Ptilinopus leclancheri)
Coroneted fruit dove (Ptilinopus coronulatus)
Mariana fruit dove (Ptilinopus roseicapilla)
Pink-spotted fruit dove (Ptilinopus perlatus)
Wompoo fruit dove (Ptilinopus magnificus)
House Crow (Corvus splendens): Urban pest that damages crops and is a hazard at the airports. It was introduced in Kenya in about 1947, and is responsible for killing fruit bats.
Red-billed Quelea (Quelea quelea)

Reptiles

Red-headed agama lizard (Agama agama)
Brother’s Island tuatara lizard (Sphenodon guntheri)
Orange-throated whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis hyperythra beldingi)
Rainbow kopje skink (Lampropholis delicata)
Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis)
Red diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus exsul)
Burmese star tortoise (Geochelone platynotan

Invertebrates

Crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)

Fishes

Although not listed in Kenya’s wildlife Act, an invasive species of interest to conservationists is the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus). The species was introduced to Lake Victoria in 1954 to address the issue of overfishing. However, Nile Perch is the main cause for the disappearance of over 200 endemic fish species in the lake.

It is apparent that invasive species have a devastating impact on the native species. In Kenya, the impact of invasive species is particularly significant. Because the economy depends on natural resources for industries like tourism and agriculture. Even more concerning is the growing list of endangered species in Kenya, whose habitats are destroyed by the invasive species.

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

The post Invasive species in Kenya: Plants and Animals appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

A Summary of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016)

Davidokul — Tue, 26 Jan 2021 07:47:22 +0000

The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) is a product of the review of the Forest Act (2015) to align it to the constitution of Kenya. One of the key changes of the Act is the inclusion of county governments in forest management and conservation. Other conspicuous provisions in the act include:

A forest status report and resource assessment report to be prepared every 2 and 5 years respectively by KFS. A GIS database should also be maintained regularly by KFS
Any person may petition the variation of forest boundaries
A public forest strategy formulated every five years
Allows for more involvement of communities and private sectors in forestry

The act has 11 parts and 2 schedules. The table below is a summary of the 11 parts of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act.

Parts	Key Points
1. Preliminary	Captures general things about the act such as citation and commencement, interpretation, applications, guiding principles, public forest policy, and public forest strategy
2. Administration	Kenya Forest Service (KFS) is the body responsible for the management of public forests in Kenya. Some of the key responsibilities of KFS include the implementation of forest management plans, issuing licences, and permits for use of forest resources, establishing benefit-sharing arrangements, and build the capacity of the County government in forestry. The roles of other institutions such as Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) and Kenya Forestry College are also outlined. County governments are required to implement national forest policies and manage public forests in counties It also outlines the appointment of honorary foresters and the establishment of forest conservation areas and committees
3. Financial provisions	It addresses the source of funds for KFS, which is mainly from the national treasury It also defines Forest Conservation and Management Trust Fund that seeks to support forestry programmes such as payment for ecosystem services The board prepares the budget at least two months before the end of the financial year (June)
4. Classification and management of forests	Forests are classified as s public, community, or private. But community and private forests are registered by KFS Community forests upon registration can benefit from Forest Conservation and Management Trust Fund and get technical support from county governments The service can declare a mismanaged community or private forest as a provisional forest Each county to have an arboretum or a green zone 5% of any housing development project should be a green zone With counsel from KEFRI, the cabinet secretary can declare a tree species to be protected No individual can fell, cut, damage, or remove, trade in or export or attempt to export any protected tree species with backing from an EIA, the service can offer a concession to utilize public forests Any person/service or institution can enter into a management agreement for all or parts of a public forest. But no management agreement includes settlements in the forest
5. Community participation	Outlines the obligations of the community forest association. The association sets out the use of forest resources, methods of biodiversity conservation, methods for biodiversity monitoring, and protection of wildlife. The CFAs are entitled to forest user rights such as collection of forest products, ecotourism and education activities.
6. Incentives for increasing forest and tree cover	Investors in forests shall share the benefits of their investment with local communities e.g. employment, infrastructure, education Tax and fiscal incentives (by Government) to promote forest conservation and management Promote national tree planting week and the International Day of Forests (21^st March)
7. Licencing and Trade in forest products	The KFS can allow the private sector to participate in sustainable forestry management through licenses, contracts, joint management agreements, or concessions The Service shall publish in the Gazette a chain-of-custody system for the verification of the origin of forest products from the public, community, and private forests
8. Enforcement and compliance	Chief conservator of forests and forest officers can demand licence and search any person suspected to have possession of forest products. Seizing and detaining livestock found roaming illegally in the forest. Officers of the service above the rank of Sergeant Forest Ranger have the same powers conferred on a police officer under the Criminal Procedure Code and the National Police Service Act, 2011# Officers with paramilitary training can use firearms
9. Offences and Penalties	Except under licence/permit, the following are illegal activities in a public/provisional forest: illegal harvesting of forest products, importation or exportation of forest produce, illegally marking forest produce, arson of a forest and introduction of exotic genetic material, smoking, livestock grazing, cultivating, and possession of logging equipment. Other offences related to counterfeiting and quarrying are defined. The penalties for each group of offences are also outlined. Any dispute that may arise in respect of forest conservation and management shall be referred to the lowest possible structure under the devolved system of government initially but may be forwarded to National Environment Tribunal for determination if unresolved. An appeal, where applicable, lie in the Environment and Land Court as established under the Environment and Land Court Act, 2011.
10. Miscellaneous	Gives provisions for the regulations of the act The act aligns with the constitution and international treaties where Kenya is a signatory
11. Transitional provisions	The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) repeals the Kenya Forest Act (2005) and Timber Act (1972). However, public forests and licences issued before the act are valid.

Schedules of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act

The Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act has 3 schedules as follows:

The first schedule indicates the tenure of office and conduct of the business of the board
The second schedule outlines the conditions for public participation, and
The third schedule lists the gazetted public forests in Kenya

Issues with the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act

Although the Act aligns forestry regulations in Kenya with the constitution and international treaties, various shortcomings are evident:

The Chief Conservator of Forests is determined as the person in charge of day to day running of KFS (Section 14(4)). However other instances mention the director-general (Section (35(2b).
Although the act claims that public forests are managed by KFS, it also contradicts itself by claiming that county governments should manage the public forests under their jurisdiction. The clash with devolution is also evident in the classification of county forests (yet the act initially mention forests could only be public, private, or community). However, there is a feeling that the KFS mandate is public forests, while the counties have a mandate over the community and private forests. This feel is captured by the fact that the Chief Conservator of Forests supervises the implementation of management plans in public forests. In contrast, county governments supervise the implementation of management plans in community and private forests (Section 47,6).
Although fines and penalties for illegal forest activity have been increased in the act. The penalties are still low for some offences. For instance, the maximum fine for tree poaching is 100,000 Kenya Shillings.

All in all, the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act provides a good start point for Kenya in developing sustainable and productive forests. It would be great if some of Kenya’s forests could be regarded as important forests of the world.

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

They may not be the most giant animal in the African savannas; however, the habits of lions make them the ‘King of the jungle’. The

The potential impacts of Coronavirus on Conservation in Africa

In the long-run, coronavirus impacts on conservation is negative. As tourism income decreases, the threat to conservation in Africa is expected to increase

The Environmental Benefits of the Coronavirus (COVID 19)

By David OkulApril 29, 2020 The COVID 19 global pandemic has affected all aspects of human life. The virus has claimed hundreds of thousands of

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics.

The post A Summary of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016) appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

Rangeland Fires in Africa, are they necessary for savanna management today?

Davidokul — Wed, 30 Sep 2020 12:28:11 +0000

By David Okul

30 Sept 2020

Rangeland fires are ubiquitous in the African savannas, especially in the dry season. Livestock owners and range managers would start fires to promote the growth of good grass. In some cases, the fire could start from lightning or accidents. Regardless, the fires have been part of the African savannas for generations. For a long time, the fires have been considered as essential for the integrity of the savanna system. The question is whether the fires are a necessary management practice in the face of climate change and other environmental problems of the 21^st century.

Ecological importance of the Rangeland fires in Africa

Many people believe that wildfires are vital for the survival of the savannas. They argue that the fires do little to destroy the biological community, hence they do not threaten biodivesity. The major benefits of the forest fires to the ecology are cited as:

Fires provide a feast for animals. Species like birds come to devour grasses, mice, lizards, or even snakes killed or driven out by the fires.
Some animals and plants rely on the fires for their survival. For instance, some trees will require fire to break seed dormancy. Also, some birds, e.g. Temminck Courser, only nests in recently burned grasslands.
Underground holes and crevices provide a hiding place for small creatures. Larger animals can usually run from the fire
The fire would burn dry stem and leaves of grasses and some trees. However, the roots remain unharmed and would sprout when moisture is available. This sprouting nature of the grasses is the main reason why pastoralists set grasslands on fire in the dry season. Wildlife also benefit from the emerging nutritious grass
The burnt shrubs can also survive on starch reserves until favorable conditions come up.
Fires are also set up to control the emergence of thorny bush and the widespread of ticks and other parasites to livestock

Professionals assert that well-controlled fires are an effective tool to manipulate vegetation composition, structure, and fuel loads on rangelands (and other wildland ecosystems).

Because of the aforementioned reasons, fire is often encouraged in the management of rangelands across Africa. Moreover, many managers believe that frequent burning of rangelands is good because it is a way of preventing big catastrophic fires. After all, ignoring the burning of grass leads to a build-up of fuel.

All that glitters is not gold

The use of fire as a management tool requires it to be applied at the correct frequency, intensity, and scale. We think that most wildfires today are not effective in management. Rangeland fires may have worked to shape African savannas in the past, but is it still a viable management tool? Here are a few points why we think that wildfires shouldn’t be encouraged

The effects of rangeland fires on soils

Soils are among the most vital of natural resources. After all, they support most of the terrestrial wildlife habitats and the agricultural systems that humans depend on for food. However, there is a consensus that burning often harms soil minerals. A conference paper claims that burned areas have between 1071 and 1420 grams per meter square less carbon compared to unburned areas. Moreover, burned soils have lesser nitrogen but higher calcium. In the advent of climate change, managers should rethink the effect of burning rangelands as a management practice because of its impacts on soil organic carbon.

EXCLUSIVE STORY: The Tsavo Conservation area that consists of the Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Park has come under threat in the past months from separate fire incidences that have destroyed thousands of acres of vegetation.https://t.co/2R6Ajxjb8p pic.twitter.com/MeHwi4tqmX
— Kenyans.co.ke (@Kenyans) August 1, 2020

Fire caused damages to properties

Uncontrolled fires in rangelands can result in losses in property. These could include things like cars, houses, or even livestock. Rangelands in Africa are also the locations for lodges and hotels.

Potential impacts of rangeland fires on biodiversity

Given that some plants and animals benefit from wildfire, other species are adversely affected by it. For instance, the fires could kill small animals like rodents and reptiles. Not to mention, fires could also kill and prevent the growth of young tree seedlings. Although many trees in African rangelands are resistant to fire, young seedlings may not withstand the heat. Moreover, grassland fires could sometime encroach into woodlands or forested areas.

The carbon equation

Its obvious, burning grass does emit carbon into the atmosphere. However, it can be argued that the grass could have dried and rotted anyways, still emitting the carbon. Some scientists argue that the fires in the savannas are almost always carbon neutral. This argument emerges from the observation that grass burnt usually regrows after one year and absorbs the equivalent of carbon emitted. Without a doubt, the fires have a negative impact on soil carbon stock and the regeneration of woody plant matter, which could store more carbon.

Fires have been an important management tool in the African rangelands. However, challenges such as habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, biodiversity loss, and climate change should make managers reconsider the effectiveness of fires. Personally, I think in the big picture fires are more detrimental than useful in the African rangelands.

Bird migration to East Africa from other parts of the world

May 9, 2020

Feeding, Breeding and Killing Habits of Lions (African Lion)

May 3, 2020

Feeding, breeding and Killing habits of Leopards (African Leopard)

May 3, 2020

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The views on this blog post are personal.

The post Rangeland Fires in Africa, are they necessary for savanna management today? appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

The summary of Kenya’s Wildlife Conservation and Management Act

Davidokul — Mon, 31 Aug 2020 19:28:26 +0000

By David Okul

The act has 14 parts and 11 schedules

Part I: Preliminary

Part one of the act introduces the law and define some key terms including game ranching, game farming,

The Principles of the Act are cited to include devolution, effective public participation, ecosystem approach, recognition of wildlife conservation and management as a form of land use on public, community and private land, self-sustainability (benefits from wildlife offset costs), sustainable utilization and equitable benefit sharing.

Part II: Kenya Wildlife Service

Part 2 of the act deals with the establishment of Kenya Wildlife Service. Some of the functions for KWS include:

The conservation and management of national parks and sanctuaries in Kenya
Establishing wildlife conservation committees in each county
Developing the mechanisms of sharing benefits of wildlife conservation with communities
Advise in the preparation of management plans for conservancies

The act lists a total of 19 functions of KWS

The service is managed by a Board of Trustees that includes the

chairperson (appointed by the president),

Principle Secretaries of matters of wildlife, finance and devolution

Inspector general of police

Four people appointed by the Cabinet Secretary (one from NGO, two from community conservancies, and one from private conservancies)

Part III: Matters finance

The primary source of funding for KWS is the national government. Other sources include investments and joint partnerships. The Board or Trustees are mandated to prepare estimates of revenue or expenditure for each year.

Part IV: Wildlife Regulation Mechanism

It specifies that each county in Kenya should have a County Wildlife Conservation and Compensation Committee. Each of the committee will consist of:

a chairperson appointed by the Cabinet Secretary
a rep of the county government;
an agricultural officer
a land use planning officer
a livestock officer responsible
the officer of the Service for the county, who shall be the secretary;
four persons and nominated by the community wildlife associations
a medical officer
the officer in-charge (police)
the county environment officer

Among the functions of the CWCCC is the establishment of wildlife user rights. The committee also should ensure that benefits from wildlife resources are distributed.

The committee could also invite members who do not have the voting powers.

Under section VI, issues of bioprospecting are outlined. Bioprospecting refers to searching for plants and animal species where medicine and other valuable compounds can be extracted. A bioprospecting licence can only be issued by the service.

Part V: Wildlife Endowment Fund

KWS establishes an endowment fund that is vested in Board of Trustees. The endowment fund receives money from parliament, investments, grants, and payment for ecosystems services (PES) schemes.

The functions of the endowment fund include:

developing wildlife conservation initiative
managing and restoring protected areas
protecting threatened species and habitats
supporting wildlife security operations;
facilitating community-based wildlife initiatives

Under the section, the govern net of Kenya is supposed to establish a Wildlife Compensation Scheme. Funding sources for the scheme include the national government and other sources approved by the cabinet secretary.

The Wildlife Compensation Scheme covers human death or injury, or crop and property damage caused by livestock. The County Wildlife Conservation and Compensation Committee verifies the claims and submit recommendation to the cabinet secretary.

Death- KES 5,000,000
Injury causing permanent disability- KES 3,000,000
Other injuries- Maximum of KES 2,000,000
Damages to livestock and crops are paid at local market rates, as long as owner took reasonable measures to protect their livestock/crop

People unsatisfied with the award have 30 days to appeal to National Environment Tribunal and on a second appeal to the Environment and Land Court.

Part VI: Conservation Protection and Management

The section is consistent with the Environmental Management and Coordination Act and Water Act.

Sections 31 through to 38 define the procedures of declaring national parks, reserves, wetlands, marine conservation areas, and variation of boundaries.

Section 39 outlines the procedures of establishing community and private conservancies/sanctuaries. Any land with wildlife could establish a conservancy. Section 43 outlines the standards of management where the County Wildlife and Compensation Committees could submit recommendations to deregister conservancies.

Communities and individuals may establish community wildlife associations with blessings from County Wildlife Conservation and Compensation Committee. Associations work to facilitate conflict resolution and communal management of wildlife in a region.

Each national park, marine area, wildlife conservancy and sanctuary shall be managed according to a management plan. Developments shouldn’t be approved without the presence of a management plan.

Mining and quarrying in national parks is prohibited unless they are given consent by the state and the area does not contain endangered species, is not a critical wildlife habitat or an important water catchment.

A person may not carry out activity on a listed species (sixth Schedule) without the permit from the service.

Section 49 outlines how KWS can develop species recovery plans for listed species.

Part VII: Establishment of Wildlife Research and Training Institute

The act asserts that there should be a corporate institute called the Wildlife Research and Training Institute. The major purpose of the institute is to coordinate wildlife research in the country.

The institute is located in Naivasha and offers various diploma and certificate courses.

Any person undertaking research on wildlife in Kenya should obtain a permit from the institute. When a researcher is outside the country, they should have a sponsoring institution from the home country.

The institute is also tasked with developing an elaborative wildlife database according to the act. The database will use info from universities, research institutions and Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. The data should be made available to stakeholders and the general public. Section 62 further mentions that someone will require to pay a prescribed fee to access the data.

Part VIII: Conservation Orders Easement and Incentives

Part IX

Part X

Part XI

Part XII

Part XIII

Part XIV

Schedules

Schedule 1

Schedule 2

Schedule

19 Major Environmental Concerns of our World Today

May 29, 2020

The Environmental Benefits of the Coronavirus (COVID 19)

April 29, 2020

Nursery Operations: Tree nursery records

August 1, 2019

David Okul is an environmental management professional with over 10 years experience on donor projects, conservation, forestry, ecotourism, and community-based natural resources management. When not working on active environmental management projects, I spend my time writing for Silvica on a variety of topics. The views on this blog post are personal.

The post The summary of Kenya’s Wildlife Conservation and Management Act appeared first on Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development .

You searched for wildlife - Silvica: Blog for Sustainable Development

Environmental Externalities: Research Paper

By Ntagusa Moonyoi

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Importance of addressing environmental externalities

Thesis statement outlining the scope and purpose of the paper.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition and classification of environmental externalities

Historical context and evolution of the concept

Key studies and research on environmental externalities

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Air pollution: Sources, impacts, and mitigation strategies

Water pollution: Causes, consequences, and regulatory measures

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES.

Market failures and the role of externalities

Theoretical frameworks such as Pigouvian taxation and Coase theorem

1. Pigouvian Taxation:

2. Coase Theorem:

Comparison:

Conclusion:

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Emerging trends in environmental policy and technology

Recommendations for policymakers, businesses, and individuals/civil society.

CONCLUSION

Summary of key findings

Call to action for sustainable practices and policies.

REFERENCES

Some Statistics on How Man is Destroying Nature

By David Okul

Collapse of Species

Habitats destruction

Water Natural resources are not spared too

The cascading effect of Nature degradation

What Can We Do?

The Good News

Concluding remarks

Natural Resources Definition, Features, and Classification

By David Okul

Technical natural resources definition

Classification of natural resources

Inexhaustible Resources

Renewable Resources

Concluding Remarks

Definition, Characteristics, Principles, and Examples of Community-Based Tourism (CBT)

By David Okul

Characteristics of a Functioning Community-Based Tourism Organizations

Products offered by CBT

Cultural-Social Resource

Natural Resources

Other CBT resources

Principles of Community-Based Tourism

Examples of Community-based Tourism

Promote CBTIs in your travel

Payment for Ecosystem Services Definition, Examples, and Criticism

By David Okul

PES in Conservation as Tool (Definition)

Examples of PES

Comparisons with Polluter Pay Principle

The Criticisms of PES

Concluding remarks

Endangered Species in Kenya: Plants and Animals

By David Okul

Endangered Plant Species in Kenya

Endangered animal Species in Kenya

Threatened Mammal Species in Kenya

Amphibians and reptiles are also diminishing across East Africa

Fish Threatened with Extinction in Kenya

Invasive species in Kenya: Plants and Animals

By David Okul

Not Many Mammals are listed as Invasive in Africa

Invasive plant species in Kenya

Other animals listed as invasive in Kenya

Birds

Reptiles

Invertebrates

Fishes

A Summary of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act (2016)

Schedules of the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act

Issues with the Kenya Forest Conservation and Management Act