Biodiversity monitoring has a vital measurement problem despite the understanding that stocktaking of biodiversity variables plays a critical part in conservation. A common approach in monitoring is using a basket of metrics as it is impossible to measure all the biodiversity variables in an ecosystem.

It goes without saying that the first step of indicator development is developing a clear and agreeable understanding of ecosystem types and subtypes for indicators. IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology is an agreed ecological classification framework that is recommended for renowned environmental accounting standards such as the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA EA). It is a product of critical review and input from leading ecosystem scientists in the world. Furthermore, World Conservation Congress Marseille 2020, voted for a global ecosystem typology under resolution 061.

The IUCN Global Ecosystem typology is a classification system based on hierarchy. At the upper level, it defines ecosystems based on their convergent ecological functions but distinguishes ecosystems with contrasting assemblages in the lower levels.

Globally, the agriculture, forestry and land use change is a major net emitter of greenhouse gases. It is estimated that the sector contributes 23% of GHG. As such, forest conservation and avoided deforestation are attractive alternatives for climate change mitigation. Against this background, the UNFCCC introduced REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries). The Warsaw Framework provide the basic rules for REDD+ including safegurds for people and the environment, national forest monitoring systems, forest reference levels, MRVs, etc.

In theory, REDD+ is of benefit to both developed and developing countries as developed countries can reduce emissions at low cost by supporting REDD+ while developing countries receive financial incentives to reduce deforestation.

Critism of REDD+

Weakened rules

There is concerned that some of the requirements for environmental safeguards, benefit sharing process,a nd participatory approaches are not stringent enough.

Over issuance of credits

There are some reports of REDD+ projects overissuing carbon credits. An important aspect of REDD+ project is calculating the baseline which climate action can be measured.

However, most standards publicly list project information and have space for public comments. More importantly, baselines are reassessed during validation. Recently, Verra revised its baseline assessment period from 10 years to 6 years.

Furthermore, standard agencies often engage group of experts in developing standards and reviewing projects.

Concluding remarks

Scrutiny of carbon projects help to improve transparency and the effectiveness of offset projects.

Tropical forests are reducing. The fact is that projects similar to REDD+ do assist in reducing the rates of deforestation. A number of studies support this claim Malan et al (2024), Everland (2023) and Ropsind et al (2019)

More reading

https://cbmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13021-023-00228-y

The first step for an effective benefit-sharing mechanism in the CBT is to have an identifiable membership for the CBTO. It is common for CBTO members to register with a CBTO and pay predetermined membership fees. Additionally, communities should be able to identify their stakeholders with clarity

2. Well-established institutions: Members of any community have different backgrounds and interests. It is important that they have a legitimate local community institution that is respected by the community and provides an interface for engaging with other stakeholders such as investors and local governments.  A CBTO can establish committees to deal with various issues that are pertinent to its operations.
3. Well defined property rights. The CBTO resource inventory should be documented and the members made aware of their ownership and power rights.
4. Local communities must get genuine benefits from community-based tourism activities in their localities. A sharing procedure must be defined and communicated to all stakeholders beforehand. Table 6.1 below shows how a CBTO can share benefits that accrue from hiking activities

Table 6.1: A simple benefit-sharing mechanism for a CBTO

A CBTO charges KES 1000 for a hiking experience to a local hill. The benefits are shared as follows:

• KES 300 provides local motorbike transport and water for the hiker (30%)
• KES 200 is a guiding fee for the guide (20%)
• KES 150 is given to the owner of the land where the hill is located (15%)
• KES 100 is sent to the tour operator or the referral who brought the client (10%)
• KES 250 is retained by the CBTO for administration (licenses and office space) and the rest is retained as profit that will be shared as a dividend at the end of the year.

5. If communities are denied fair and transparent benefit-sharing procedures, it is likely that conflicts will arise in the CBT.
6. Assist the community in improving their access to basic services (such as water, sanitation, education and hygiene). This can be achieved by the group undertaking activities related to corporate social responsibility.
7. Establish schemes to assist the vulnerable members of the community (e.g. disabled, orphans, widows)
8. Encourage basic training of business operations to CBT staff and owners e.g. in aspects of cash flow, budget surplus/deficit, and retaining part of the profits to reinvest

1. Develop a social policy with the community members and proactively communicate and update periodically. A CBT social policy should:

• Respect local cultures by ensuring that the activities undertaken by the CBT should not undermine their culture or the cultures of neighboring communities
• Promote gender equality by practicing equity in the distribution of roles and resources to women, youth, and men.
• Uphold dignity and respect i.e., apart from local cultures, the CBT has to make efforts to respect and treat with dignity the cultures of its visitors.
• Support child protection whereby the CBTO ensures that the social policy protects children from negative aspects of sex tourism and child labor.

2. Promote Collaboration and networking. This is consistent with principle 2 for CBT. Collaboration and networking ensure that the CBTO understands stakeholders’ need for social well-being.
3. Implement efficient marketing strategies: A CBTO needs to be market-efficient to be able to sustain its social activities. Information on effective marketing methods can be obtained from the SUS-TOUR Marketing Guidelines[1] and the SUS-TOUR DIY toolkit on Marketing.[2]
4. Promote the conservation of natural resources. Conservation of community resources needs to be one of the main characteristics of sustainable tourism development. In this subject area, conservation refers to the preservation of the culture of a local community, the heritage in the area, the environment, and nature that represents the identity of the tourist place. Ventures that promote conservation promote the social well-being of the community. More on conservation is available in principle 8.
5. Develop a code of conduct for the CBTO members. The code of conduct refers to rules that guide the social norms and practices of groups and organizations. It assists in ensuring that members understand the dos and don’ts of an organization.
6. Develop a code of conduct for tourists. CBTOS needs to have a code of conduct as visitors may have cultures and beliefs that are dissimilar to them. Each CBTO should develop a code of conduct and communicate it to the tourists during the initial briefing.
7. Develop a code of conduct for the other business activities including food and beverage, guides, accommodation, etc. A code of conduct is an important tool in improving the quality of products and experiences offered by CBT.
8. Discourage the abuse of drugs among the community members
9. Disseminate information on the contemporary social issues in the area such as HIV and AIDs, tribalism, and corruption as they relate to the CBTO.

[1] Georgina, Guillen-Hanson, Leisinger Matthias, and Deng Yang. 2017. “SUS-TOUR Marketing Guideline.” http://www.sustourkenya.org/index.php/2016-07-01-15-04-15/downloads/send/3-downloads/8-marketing-guideline.

[2]  Yang, Deng. 2018. “SUS-TOUR CBT DIY Toolkit- Module 3: Communication and Marketing.”

The bullet points below illustrate how biodiversity is shifting. Links in the bullet points redirect to articles across websites proving the statements.

• Livestock accounts for 62% of global mammalian biomass while humans account for 34%. Only 4% of the biomass represents wildlife species. The estimate is a startling reminder of the reduced biodiversity.
• Poultry accounts for 61% of the world’s birds’ biomass. Some estimates claim that poultry biomass could be as much as 80%. In contrast, 4-10% of bird species are farmed as poultry.
• Over 12% of the known species are faced with the danger of extinction. Over 30% of land and 75% of freshwater resources are utilized for food production.
• Lost over a third of tigers and elephant populations since counting began.
• Further, these wild areas are concentrated in about 20 countries. The wilderness areas are often the homes of indigenous communities.
• Wildlife populations have reduced by 68% since 1970. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the drop has been over 94%.
• Over a million species are in danger of extinction
• One of every 3 freshwater species is faced with extinction threat.
• IUCN has listed 77 animals as extinct in the wild. The organization’s Red List identifies 41,000 species as threatened, which represents 28% of the total species researchers assess.
• 3 million species in the Amazon are threatened by human-caused ecosystem collapse.
• Introduced species have significant negative impacts on the environment. The number of alien species has increased as humans move across habitats. Alien species could have dramatic impacts on the species richness of native habitats.

 Nature is the number one source for all basic human needs like clean water, food, air, shelter, and clothing. These basic needs are essential for human survivors. They are sourced from nature directly or indirectly.

Air: Humans depend on nature for clean air to support their existence. Nature produces air by interacting with land, plants, and the atmosphere. For example, trees absorb Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce oxygen. Other natural resources like soil, wetlands, and plants help clean the air, giving humans access to fresh air.

The ocean produces over half of the world’s oxygen through oceanic plankton. However, marine life consumes most of the oxygen produced in the oceans.

Food: Humans are heavily dependent on food. Nature provides humans with a balanced diet containing carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals essential for healthy living. The natural sources of food include plants and animals. Humans source their food from fruits, roots, stems, seeds, leaves, and flowers of plants. The plants also produce other food-related products like oil from seeds, sugar from sugarcane stems, and species from dried leaves and roots. Humans also depend on animals as a food source, directly or indirectly. Animals are rich sources of proteins. Animals produce milk, meat, and eggs.

Water: The three natural sources of water are underground water, rain, and surface water. Humans access underground water by drilling boreholes. Rainwater falls in the form of snow or precipitation. Humans can collect rainwater by building dams or using containers. Surface water involves water sources above the surface and is easily accessible to humans. Examples of surface water sources include wetlands, lakes, rivers, oceans, and seas. Humans rely on nature as the direct drinking water source and irrigating crops. The body needs clean drinking water to function correctly and promote good health. Humans also use water to irrigate lands and grow crops, thus promoting food security.

It is difficult for CBT to make it alone in the journey of tourism. It is always a good idea to seek synergetic partnerships. The partnerships need to build up the CBT.

Most CBT initiatives get initial funding from an external source, such as donors, government, or development agencies. Over time, the resources diminish and the community needs to depend on tour operators for marketing.

The value of partnerships could be vindicated by the fact that it is the Sustainable Development Goal 17.