Biodiversity monitoring has a vital measurement problem despite the understanding that stocktaking of biodiversity variables plays a critical part in conservation. A common approach in monitoring is using a basket of metrics as it is impossible to measure all the biodiversity variables in an ecosystem.

It goes without saying that the first step of indicator development is developing a clear and agreeable understanding of ecosystem types and subtypes for indicators. IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology is an agreed ecological classification framework that is recommended for renowned environmental accounting standards such as the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA EA). It is a product of critical review and input from leading ecosystem scientists in the world. Furthermore, World Conservation Congress Marseille 2020, voted for a global ecosystem typology under resolution 061.

The IUCN Global Ecosystem typology is a classification system based on hierarchy. At the upper level, it defines ecosystems based on their convergent ecological functions but distinguishes ecosystems with contrasting assemblages in the lower levels.

Globally, the agriculture, forestry and land use change is a major net emitter of greenhouse gases. It is estimated that the sector contributes 23% of GHG. As such, forest conservation and avoided deforestation are attractive alternatives for climate change mitigation. Against this background, the UNFCCC introduced REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries). The Warsaw Framework provide the basic rules for REDD+ including safegurds for people and the environment, national forest monitoring systems, forest reference levels, MRVs, etc.

In theory, REDD+ is of benefit to both developed and developing countries as developed countries can reduce emissions at low cost by supporting REDD+ while developing countries receive financial incentives to reduce deforestation.

Critism of REDD+

Weakened rules

There is concerned that some of the requirements for environmental safeguards, benefit sharing process,a nd participatory approaches are not stringent enough.

Over issuance of credits

There are some reports of REDD+ projects overissuing carbon credits. An important aspect of REDD+ project is calculating the baseline which climate action can be measured.

However, most standards publicly list project information and have space for public comments. More importantly, baselines are reassessed during validation. Recently, Verra revised its baseline assessment period from 10 years to 6 years.

Furthermore, standard agencies often engage group of experts in developing standards and reviewing projects.

Concluding remarks

Scrutiny of carbon projects help to improve transparency and the effectiveness of offset projects.

Tropical forests are reducing. The fact is that projects similar to REDD+ do assist in reducing the rates of deforestation. A number of studies support this claim Malan et al (2024), Everland (2023) and Ropsind et al (2019)

More reading

https://cbmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13021-023-00228-y

The bullet points below illustrate how biodiversity is shifting. Links in the bullet points redirect to articles across websites proving the statements.

• Livestock accounts for 62% of global mammalian biomass while humans account for 34%. Only 4% of the biomass represents wildlife species. The estimate is a startling reminder of the reduced biodiversity.
• Poultry accounts for 61% of the world’s birds’ biomass. Some estimates claim that poultry biomass could be as much as 80%. In contrast, 4-10% of bird species are farmed as poultry.
• Over 12% of the known species are faced with the danger of extinction. Over 30% of land and 75% of freshwater resources are utilized for food production.
• Lost over a third of tigers and elephant populations since counting began.
• Further, these wild areas are concentrated in about 20 countries. The wilderness areas are often the homes of indigenous communities.
• Wildlife populations have reduced by 68% since 1970. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the drop has been over 94%.
• Over a million species are in danger of extinction
• One of every 3 freshwater species is faced with extinction threat.
• IUCN has listed 77 animals as extinct in the wild. The organization’s Red List identifies 41,000 species as threatened, which represents 28% of the total species researchers assess.
• 3 million species in the Amazon are threatened by human-caused ecosystem collapse.
• Introduced species have significant negative impacts on the environment. The number of alien species has increased as humans move across habitats. Alien species could have dramatic impacts on the species richness of native habitats.

 Nature is the number one source for all basic human needs like clean water, food, air, shelter, and clothing. These basic needs are essential for human survivors. They are sourced from nature directly or indirectly.

Air: Humans depend on nature for clean air to support their existence. Nature produces air by interacting with land, plants, and the atmosphere. For example, trees absorb Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce oxygen. Other natural resources like soil, wetlands, and plants help clean the air, giving humans access to fresh air.

The ocean produces over half of the world’s oxygen through oceanic plankton. However, marine life consumes most of the oxygen produced in the oceans.

Food: Humans are heavily dependent on food. Nature provides humans with a balanced diet containing carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals essential for healthy living. The natural sources of food include plants and animals. Humans source their food from fruits, roots, stems, seeds, leaves, and flowers of plants. The plants also produce other food-related products like oil from seeds, sugar from sugarcane stems, and species from dried leaves and roots. Humans also depend on animals as a food source, directly or indirectly. Animals are rich sources of proteins. Animals produce milk, meat, and eggs.

Water: The three natural sources of water are underground water, rain, and surface water. Humans access underground water by drilling boreholes. Rainwater falls in the form of snow or precipitation. Humans can collect rainwater by building dams or using containers. Surface water involves water sources above the surface and is easily accessible to humans. Examples of surface water sources include wetlands, lakes, rivers, oceans, and seas. Humans rely on nature as the direct drinking water source and irrigating crops. The body needs clean drinking water to function correctly and promote good health. Humans also use water to irrigate lands and grow crops, thus promoting food security.

Erosion literally means “to wear away”. You might have noticed during the dry season, when wind blows it carries away sand and soil particles from one place to another. Similarly flowing water removes some amount of soil along with it. This removal of top layers of soil by wind and water is called soil erosion. You know that top layers of soil contain humus and mineral salts, which are vital for the growth of plants. Thus, erosion causes a significant loss of humus and nutrients, and decreases the fertility of soil.

Causes of soil Erosion

Now we shall discuss the causes of soil erosion. There are several causes of soil erosion, these include:

(a) Natural causes; and

(b) Anthropogenic causes (human generated causes)

(a) Natural Causes of Soil Erosion

Erosion of soil takes places due to the effect of natural agents like wind and water. High speed winds over lands, which have no vegetation, carry away the loose top soil. Similarly in areas with no or very little vegetation, the pouring raindrops carry away the soil.

(b) Anthropogenic/ man-made Causes of Soil Erosion

Besides the natural agents, there are some human activities, which cause soil erosion. Let us know about them.

1. Deforestation: If the forests are cut down for timber, or for farming purposes, then the soil is no longer protected from the effect of falling rains. Consequently, the top soil is washed away into the rivers and oceans.

2. Poor farming methods: Improper tillage and failure to replace humus after successive crops and burning the stubble of weeds reduce the water-holding capacity of the soil. So the soil becomes dry and can be blown away as dust.

3. Overgrazing: Overgrazing by flocks of cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep leave very little plant-cover on the soil. Their hooves make the soil dry and soil can be blown away easily.

What are the possible causes of soil erosion in your area?

A more technical explanation defines natural resources by what they are not. It is common for environmentalists to define natural resources by what it is not. In this respect, a natural resource is not:

• Goods subjected to some processing, e.g automobiles
• Products not extracted from the natural environment. E.g., food from agriculture is cultivated rather than extracted.

Further, the technical definition would involve a look into the features/characteristics of natural resources. Five features are pertinent:

• Exhaustibility
• Uneven distribution in different countries: For instance over 80% of all known oil reserves are within 3 countries
• Externalities such as pollution that arise from extraction
• Volatility: variation in the pricing
• Dominance: many countries rely on a narrow range of natural resources for their export

A more detailed explanation of the features of natural resources is explained in the World Trade Report

Natural resources are thought of as natural capital different from human and physical capital.

In natural resources definition, it is vital to distinguish between natural resources as factors of production and goods that can be traded. As factors of production, natural resources can form the basis for various economic sectors. For instance, unique natural scenery may spur tourism. In contrast, some natural resources such as minerals can be traded in the international market in their raw form.

The earth’s physical environment provides the life support system and all the resources we use. The physical environment has four spheres including the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Carbon is perhaps the most important parameter for healthy soil. Keep in mind that plants don’t absorb carbon from the soil but the atmosphere. Instead, the carbon in soil contributes to soil nutrients by adsorbing and desorbing nutrients and providing habitats for microorganisms. In short, measuring SOC helps in assessing the soil’s health. Other reasons for measuring soil organic carbon are:

1. It is an indicator of the water holding capacity of soils: More SOC means higher water holding capacity
2. Fight against climate change: As the second most important sink for carbon (after oceans), measuring SOC would help in monitoring the absorption capacity of soils.

Various plant species are endangered because of overexploitation, deforestation, and degradation. In East Africa, clearing native vegetation types for agriculture and settlement is still a threat to biodiversity. Apart from commercial value, some plants are overexploited because of their medicinal values. The threatened plant species in Kenya include the

1. Bauhinia mombassae: The species is under intense pressure from elephants at the Kenyan coast.
2. Brucea macrocarpa: A shrub found in central Kenya in swampy areas around Thika and Kamiti. Expansion of land for agriculture is a major threat
3. Voi cycad (Encephalartos kisambo); Species also threatened by agriculture and charcoal production. The good news is that the species is relatively easy to grow and is prized in landscaping.
4. East African sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata); has been overexploited because of its oil that is valuable in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. As such, it is illegal to cut, uproot or export sandalwood
5. Red stinkwood (Prunus africana): Its timber is prized because it is heavy, straight-grained, and strong. However, the tree is overexploited because of its medicinal properties as its bark and leaves are harvested. The species is protected under Appendix II of CITES.
6. Meru oak (Vitex keniensis): The IUCN listed endangered species is valued for its timber. For a high-value indigenous tree, the species is relatively fast-growing.
7. Camphor (Ocotea kenyensis): The vulnerable species are found in various places in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is threatened by the loss of habitats.
8. Parasol tree (Polyscias kikuyuensis): The tree is endemic to Kenya, but is threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation for timber and medicine.
9. Rat aloe (Aloe ballyi): The tall poisonous succulent is among the few poisonous aloes. It is native to Kenya (Taita Hills) and Tanzania. The rare succulent is threatened by land clearance and is called rat aloe because of the smell of its leaves.
10. Tana river poplar (Populus ilicifolia). Only species of genus Populus that is native to Africa, and endemic to a small section of Kenya and Tanzania. Was used by Pokomos for canoe making. Some of the tree is found in Nyando River (Near Ahero), but it is probably planted there. Relatively fast-growing.
11. Combretum tenuipetiolatum: IUCN lists it as ‘critically endangered, and can only be found in Rabai forest
12. Euphorbia tanaensis: Another critically endangered species found in Witu Forest, where you can find about 20 mature trees.
13. African Olive (Olea europea ssp africana) is endangered in the East African region because of its beautiful wood and medicinal properties.
14. Knobwood (Zanthoxylum chalybeum) is critically endangered in Kenya and threatened in the East African region, also because of its medicinal value.

Despite this list, the Kenya Wildlife and Conservation Act only consider sandalwood and Voi cycad as endangered. Some of the other species are listed as vulnerable in the Act.